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, name given in Morocco to the money minted on the orders of Mawlāy al-Ḥasan from 1299/1881-2 onwards. The object was to replace the previous Moroccan coinage consisting of a multitude of bronze, copper or silver coins; the gold coins had practically disappeared a long time before. The currency previous to Mawlāy al-Ḥasan was victoriously rivalled by different foreign currencies, mainly Spanish, French and English, especially since the financial crisis created by the Spanish-Moroccan war of 1859-60 (cf. G. Ayache, Aspects de la crise financière au Maroc après l’expédition espagnole …

, son of K̲h̲ayr al-Dīn [ q.v.] and placed in command at Algiers three times: 1544-1551, 1557-1561, and 1562-1567. The son of an Algerine woman, he was less than 28 years old when appointed pas̲h̲a of Algiers for the first time. His first command (as deputy to his father, who was both Beylerbey and Ḳapudan Pas̲h̲a) was marked at the beginning by the strengthening of the fortifications of Algiers, found to be inadequate after the expedition of Charles V in 1541. On the other hand, he tried to settle th…

al-Ḥasanī . Practically nothing is known of this personage, who has become one of the "poles" ( ḳuṭb , [ q.v.]) of popular mysticism in Morocco. The only fairly certain fact ¶ is that he died in 625/1227-8 by assassination in his hermitage on the Ḏj̲abal al-ʿAlam, in the territory of the Banū ʿArūs, to the south-east of Tetuan. He is said to have fallen victim to a man of the region, Muḥammad b. Abī Tawād̲j̲īn al-Kutāmī, belonging to Ḳaṣr Kutāma, who had rebelled against the decaying Almohad power and was attempting to pass h…

, Turkish word meaning “maternal uncle”, which seems to have been used to designate official functions only in the Regencies of Algiers and Tunis. It probably began as a sort of honorific title (comparable to the word alp , used by the ancient Turks), and must have been difficult to acquire, as its bearer had to have demonstrated his prowess on land and sea in the Mediterranean (Pakalın, i, 407-8). This usage would conflict with the legend ¶ in which the father of the Barbarossas is supposed to have told his sons to obey K̲h̲ayr al-Din [ q.v.] for “he will be your day” (Venture de Paradis, Alger au X…

, dey of Algiers from the beginning of 1682 till 22 July 1683. He first exercised the functions of corsair-captain ( raʾīs ) at Algiers; in this capacity he took part in the revolt of 1671 which replaced the powers of the ag̲h̲a s by that of the deys. Son-in-law of the first dey, Ḥād̲j̲d̲j̲ Muḥammad Ṭrīḳī who was also a corsair, he already played an important part in the days of this timid old man. Thus, when Ḥād̲j̲d̲j̲ Muḥammad fled to Tripoli on receiving news that a French fleet was coming to attack Algiers, Ḥasa…

, a descendant of a Yemeni family which settled in Spain at an unknown date, subsequently moving to the district of Msīla, in the Mag̲h̲rib, at the end of the 3rd/9th century at the latest. Like his father ʿAlī, he was at first a loyal supporter of the Fāṭimid cause, as Governor of Msila; then, probably inspired by jealousy of the Zīrids [ q.v.] who were increasingly favoured by the Fāṭimid caliphs, he changed sides in 360/971 and swore obedience to the Umayyad ¶ caliph of Spain. After a few years in favour, he incurred the displeasure of the all-powerful ḥād̲j̲ib al-Manṣūr b. Abī ʿĀmir [ q.v.] who …

, Abu ʿAlī , sultan of Morocco from 12 September 1873 to 9 June 1894. He was the son of Sayyidī Muḥammad b. ʿAbd al-Raḥmān whom, at the age of 37, he succeeded without dispute. Soon after his accession, however, revolts broke out at several places: Azammūr, against the local governor; Meknès, where an uncle rose as pretender to the throne; Fez, where the tanners rebelled in order to obtain the abolition of a local tax. The sultan repressed these risings quickly and without exc…

, a term of Greek origin (πανδοχεĩον) used, particularly in North Africa, to denote hostelries at which animals and humans can lodge, on the lines of the caravanserais or k̲h̲ān s of the Muslim East. These hostelries consist of a court-yard surrounded by buildings on all four sides. The ground floors are generally used to house animals from caravans or owned by passing country-dwellers and also, when necessary, any merchandise stored there until such time as the consignee takes delivery of it. On the up…

, ʿAlawid [ q.v.] sultan of Morocco, whose first reign started 4 S̲h̲aʿbān 1141/5 March 1729, while his last ended with his death 27 Ṣafar 1171/10 Nov. 1757. This sovereign was in fact deposed several times, five times according to the Arabic historians, and as often recalled to power. For the good order established in Morocco under Mawlāy Ismāʿīl [ q.v.] was at that time but a memory. When ʿAbd Allāh assumed power, two of his brothers, Aḥmad al-Ḏh̲ahabī and ʿAbd al-Malik, had been fighting for it for two years, and had roused, by their mutual bids and t…

( Fès , Fez ), a town of Northern Morocco situated at 4° 54′ W., 34° 6′ N. It stands at the northeast extremity of the plain of the Sāʾis, at the exact place where the waters of the eastern side of this plain go down into the valley of Sebou via the valley of the Wādī Fās. It is therefore on the easiest route between the Atlantic coast of Morocco and the central Mag̲h̲rib. Furthermore, one of the least difficult roads across the Middl…

, chief town of the department of the Saoura (Organisation Commune des Régions Sahariennes), created by a decree of 7 August 1957. This town is quite recent; before the French occupation, which dates from 13 November 1903, a few villages, with no historical importance, had been built unevenly along the banks of the Oued Bechar (Wādī Bas̲h̲s̲h̲ār), which sustained a scanty group of palms. From 1857 the region had been explored by Captain de Colomb, whose name has been used for the new town; to this has been joined the…

, banū , a Berber tribe of the Zenata group mentioned as living in the Lower Zab (south of Msīla) at the beginning of the 4th/10th century. These Berbers, in conflict with the Fāṭimid Caliph, ʿUbayd Allāh, who built the fortress of Msīla as a look-out against them, supported the Ḵh̲ārid̲j̲ite agitator, Abū Yazīd [ q.v.], and offered him refuge when he was pursued by the Fāṭimid Caliph, al-Manṣūr. Although the latter pardoned them, they nevertheless took part in the rebellion of the governor of the Zāb, Ḏj̲aʿfar Ibn al-Andalusī [ q.v.] in 360/971. Fāṭimid repression forced them to flee…

, successor of K̲h̲ayr al-Dīn as governor of Algiers, when the latter was recalled to Istanbul on 17 Rabīʿ I 942/15 October 1535 to become ḳapudan-pas̲h̲a . Ḥasan was of Sardinian origin; he was captured as a child by an Algerine pirate and made a slave of K̲h̲ayr al-Dīn, who set him free and made him a eunuch and his confidant. While his master was in command at Algiers he performed various civil and military duties, K̲h̲ayr al-Dīn leaving him at the head of the government with the title of k̲h̲alīfa . Until the attack by Charles V (1541) he seems to have acquit…

, plural of the nisba Darḳāwī, a religious brotherhood founded in north Morocco at the end of the 18th century by an Idrīsī sharīf , Mawlāy al-ʿArbī al-Darḳāwī. His name is supposed to come from the appelation of one of his ancestors who used to be called Abū Darḳa, the man with the leather shield. He was the pupil at Fās of another Idrīsī s̲h̲arīf , ʿAlī b. ʿAbd al-Raḥmān al-Djamal, an adept of the mystical doctrine of al-S̲h̲ād̲h̲ilī [ q.v.], and after the latter’s death, he organized a brotherhood inspired by this doctrine. The seat of this group was at first the zāwiya o…

This is the name both of a river of south Morocco which rises on the southern slope of the High Atlas and flows into the Atlantic south of the D̲j̲ebel Bānī, and of a Moroccan province which stretches along the two cultivated banks of this water-course from Agdz as far as the elbow of the river Darʿa, for a distance of about 120 miles in a generally north-west to south-east direction. This province is traditionally divided into eight districts corresponding with the wider parts of the valley which are separated by mountain barriers forming narrows. From north to so…

, Berber prophet of the beginning of the 4th/10th century, who appeared among the G̲h̲umāra Berbers, or, to be more exact, in the tribe of the Mad̲j̲kasa settled not far from Tetuan. He began to preach his religion in 313/925 and was killed not far from Tangier, in a battle against the Maṣmūḍa, in 315/927-8. His religion appears to have survived him for a period whose length is unknown, but which did not go beyond the end of the 4th/10th century. Just as in the religion of the Barg̲h̲awāṭa [ q.v.], this doctrine, about which we have very little information, was in part a garbled vers…

, part of the Moroccan coast situated approximately between the Wādī Lukkus, the Wādī Subū and the mountains which border the coastal plain to the east. This territory has never been precisely defined, but its limits have varied according to the tribes which occupied it and were or were not considered as tribes of the G̲h̲arb. It is an alluvial plain, humid and marshy, along the coast and bordered to the east by rolling hills. The G̲h̲arb, thus roughly defined, was at first inhabited by Berbers and probably formed part of the territory of the Barg̲h̲awāṭa [ q.v.]. These were exterminated by…

is the name given to the islets just off the north-west coast of Algiers Bay, ¶ and which now constitute the Admiralty of the town. The Arabs applied the name of the islets to the town, which was founded in the 4th/10th century on the mainland opposite them. Under the Turks it became the capital of Algeria, and has remained so ever since. It was the French who transformed its Arab name into “Alger” (Algiers). It lies at a latitude of 36° 47′ N., and a longtitude of 3° …

, a Berber confederation belonging to the Maṣmūda group, established in the Tāmasnā [ q.v.] province, extending along the Atlantic coast of Morocco, between Salé and Safi, from the 2nd/8th to the 6th/12th century. ¶ They were an important confederation, able, according to the Andalusian geographer al-Bakrī, to put more than 12,000 cavalry into the field simultaneously. They appear to have played a certain political rôle up to the arrival of the Almoravids (second half of the 5th/11th century). Prior to this time, our information …

or ahl Fās , a name given to the inhabitants of Fās. In the local dialect this name does not apply to all those who live in Fās, but to those who were born there and have right of citizenship through having adopted the ways and customs of the city and its code of good manners. The population of Fās was formed little by little of many diverse elements. The original basis was certainly made up of Berbers and some Arab companions of the Idrīsids. From the beginning of the 3rd/9th century on, the population grew through the coming of political refugees f…

, a river on the Algero-Moroccan borders, a sub-tributary on the left bak of the Tafna. Of little importance in itself, this river was the scene of several battles, since it constitutes an obstacle on the East-West route between Algeria and Morocco. Battles occurred here between the Marīnids and the ʿAbd al-Wādids in 648/1250 and 670/1271, and above all there was the battle between the French troops under Marshal Bugeaud and the Moroccan troops commanded by Mawlāy Muḥammad, the son of Sultan Mawlāy ʿAbd al-Raḥmān. Bugeaud’s army consisted of some ten thousand men, the Moroccan a…

, a Moroccan agitator who got himself recognised as sultan in north-east Morocco from 1902 to 1909. His real name was Ḏj̲ilālī b. Idrīs al-Zarhūnī al-Yūsufī, and he was born about 1865 in the mountains of Zarhūn. He had been a member of the corps of engineering students which Mawlāy al-Ḥasan had tried to establish, and then he became a minor civil servant. He was accused of dishonesty and imprisoned, and then became an exile in Algeria. He returned thence in the summer of 1902, and thanks to frauds and alleged miracles managed to pass himself off as a s̲h̲arīf and even a…

, in modern Arabic “government”. Like many political neologisms in Islamic languages, the word seems to have been first used in its modern sense in 19th century Turkey, and to have passed from Turkish into Arabic and other languages. Ḥukūma comes from the Arabic root ḥ.k.m , with the meaning “to judge, adjudicate” (cf. the related meaning, dominant in Hebrew and other Semitic languages, of wisdom. See ḥikma ). In classical usage the verbal noun ḥukūma means the act or office of adjudication, of dispensing justice, whether by a sovereign, a judge, …

, a town in Algeria in the wilāya of Mostaganem, a dāʾira of Ig̲h̲il Izane (Relizane), about 30 km. north-east of Mascara, on the Wādī Ḳalʿa. Population: 12,332 (1966 census). This Ḳalʿa was founded in the 6th/12th century by a chieftain of the Hawwāra, Muḥammad b. Isḥāḳ. About a century later, the Hawwāra [ q.v.] were supplanted by a tribe from the D̲j̲abal ʿAmūr, the Banū Rās̲h̲id. The town came under the rule of the Banū ʿAbd al-Wād, and following them under the Marīnids and then the Turks; it was at this period that Leo Africanus described it a…

, a religious brotherhood of Moroccan origin which established itself in the Central Atlas and in the neighbourhood of Constantine. It appears to have its origin in the zāwiya founded towards the end of the 6th/12th century by a Berber from the Sūs, Saʿīd u ʿAmur al-Ahansalī, on the banks of the asīf Ahansal, in the heart of the Berber country. From modest beginnings this zāwiya became better known in the second half of the 11th/17th century, when a descendant of the founder, Abū ʿUt̲h̲mān Saʿīd b. Yūsuf al-Ahansalī, who died in 1702, founded a new zāwiya in the same region and founded a b…

, plural of dāʾira , group of families attached to the service and the person of a native chief in Algeria. Before the French conquest, the name of dawāʾir (local pronunciation dwāyr ) was borne especially by four tribal groups encamped to the south-west of Oran and attached to the service of the Bey of that city, although there were other dawāʾir, for example in the Titteri. They were organized as a militia, living on the products of the ¶ land put at their disposition by the Turkish government and the profit from expeditions against tribes who were unruly or refused to p…

, Moroccan town situated at the junction of the Moroccan High Atlas with the plain of Sūs, on the Atlantic coast. The town stands at the northern end of a large bay, at the foot of a hill some 800-900 feet high which is surmounted by a fort. The population numbers 30,111, of whom 1,518 are Jews and 6,062 Europeans (1952 census). It is not clear whether a settlement existed there before the arrival of the Portuguese, although a letter from the inhabitants of Māssa to Emmanuel I of Portugal, dated 6 July, 1510 ( Sources inédites de l’Histoire du Maroc , Portugal , i, 243) speaks of an agādīr al-arbaʿā …

, sultan of Morocco from 1894 to 1908. He was born, according to Weisgerber, on 24 Feb. 1878, according to Doutté and Saint-René Taillandier 18 Rabīʿ I 1298/18 Feb. 1881, of the sultan Mawlāy al-Ḥasan and Lālla Ruḳayya, of Circassian origin. When his father died on a campaign, 9 June 1894, ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz was proclaimed sultan in Rabat, thanks to the hād̲j̲ib Aḥmad b. Mūsā, called Bā Aḥmad, who had been in charge of his education, and received as reward the title of Grand-Vizier. ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz left the management …

, a dynasty of Turkish origin which reigned in Damascus from 497/1104 to 549/1154. Its founder was the atabeg [ q.v.] of S̲h̲ams al-Mulūk Duḳāḳ, son of the Sald̲j̲ūḳid sultan Tutus̲h̲ (see sald̲j̲ūḳids ). This atabeg, named Tug̲h̲takīn and called Ẓahīr al-Dīn, was the confidant of sultan Tutus̲h̲, and was entrusted with the direction of affairs in Damascus as early as 488/1095 by Duḳāḳ, whose mentor he had been. After the death of Duḳāḳ (12 Ramaḍān 497/18 June 1104), Tug̲h̲takīn continued to exercise power in the name of the dece…

, Turkish corsair who seized possession of Algiers at the beginning of the 10th/16th century. He is sometimes designated by the name of Barbarossa (a term which is sometimes interpreted as a corruption of Bābā ʿArūd̲j̲), but it appears this surname more often refers to his brother Ḵh̲ayr al-Dīn [ q.v.]. ʿArūd̲j̲ came from the island of Midilli (Mytileneancient ¶ Lesbos); his father was a Turk, a Muslim soldier of the garrison of occupation ( G̲h̲azawāt ), or a Greek potter (Haëdo). He had at least two brothers, who were with him in the Mag̲h̲rib; Ḵ…

biʾllāh Abu Muḥammad , Saʿdid sultan, son of one of the founders of the dynasty, Maḥammad al-S̲h̲ayk̲h̲ al-Mahdī. He was born Ramaḍān 933/June 1527 and, designated as heir presumptive, was recognized as sultan on his father’s death, assassinated by his Turkish guardsmen 29 Ḏh̲u’l-Ḥid̲j̲d̲j̲a 964/23 Oct. 1557. His reign lasted till his death, due to a crisis of asthma, 28 Ramaḍān 981/21 Jan. 1574. His reign as a whole was peaceful. Yet the sultan showed himself uneasy in expectation of an eventual intervention of the Turks, who had killed his father, immediat…

, a mountainous region in the Algerian Tell. The word Kabylia, coined by the French, means “land of the Kabyles” ( bilād al-Ḳabāʾil ). This name is of fairly recent origin, however, for it is not found in the works of Arabic historians and geographers; it is probably of oral origin and intended for use by foreigners, i.e., Europeans; it seems to have been introduced into geographic nomenclature by European writers from the 16th century onwards. The word “Kabyle”, the etymology of which is sometimes questioned, seems to correspond to the Arabic word ḳabāʾil , plural of ḳabīla …

b. al-Ḥusayn , the last dey of Algiers, was born at Izmir and ruled from 1818 to 1830. When his predecessor ʿAlī K̲h̲od̲j̲a died of the plague on 1 March 1818 Ḥusayn was occupying the high office of k̲h̲od̲j̲at al-k̲h̲ayl (tribute collector). Ḥusayn was raised to the dignity of dey without having sought it, and being of a moderate disposition opened his reign by gestures of clemency. His reward was two attempts at assassination. Thereafter he remained mostly in the kasbah, which dominated the city of Algiers, surrounded by Kabyle guards. There was unrest in Algeria: the beys of Consta…