Search

, a Turkish people in Persia. The name is said to be the Turkish ḳas̲h̲ḳā “horse with a white spot on its forehead” (W. Radloff, Versuch eines Wörter buches der türk. Dialecte, ii. 395). The Ḳas̲h̲ḳāi are said to be descended from the Turkish Ḵh̲alad̲j̲ (cf. also B. G. A., i. 158: Ḵh̲ald̲j̲) mentioned by al-Iṣṭak̲h̲rī ( B. G. A., vol. i.) and later writers in the country between India and Slstān. The Ḵh̲alad̲j̲ are said to have migrated first to the Persian ʿIrāḳ where a district near Sāwa is still called Ḵh̲alad̲j̲istān; there is still said to be a Turkish speaking people there ¶ (private informa…

, a ruler of the Tīmūrid dynasty, grandson of Tīmūr, son of Mīrān-s̲h̲āh and Suyūn-beg Ḵh̲ānzāda, grand-daughter of the Ḵh̲ān of the Golden Horde, Özbeg; born in 786 ¶ (1384), died Wednesday, Rad̲j̲ab 16, 814 (Nov. 4, 1411), reigned in Samarḳand 807—812 (1405—1409). His education was entrusted to Tīmūr’s eldest wife, Sarāi Mulk Ḵh̲ānum. He is said to have distinguished himself on Tīmūr’s India campaign (1399) when only 15 years of age; he also took part in the so-called “Seven Years” (actually only 802—807=1399—1404) war i…

, a city in Turkestān, on the lower course of the Zarafs̲h̲ān. We have only the scantiest notices of the history of the city in pre-Muḥammadan times. There can be little doubt, however, that the Iranians had settlements and even towns on the Zarafs̲h̲ān at a very early period; even in the time of Alexander the Great of Macedon there was another town in Sogdiana besides Matakanda (Samarḳand) on the lower course of the river; but whether this town corresponded to the modern Buk̲h̲ārā may be questi…

al-Ḥād̲j̲ib (Abū Saʿid; his alleged second name Hārūn is only mentioned in one passage by Ibn al-At̲h̲īr (ed. Tornb., ix. 294), probably as the result of an oversig̲h̲t of the ¶ author or of a copyist), was a Turkish slave, later general to the G̲h̲aznawid Sebuk-Tegīn and to his two successors. Even while under Sebuk-Tegīn he attained the highest rank in the bodyguard of his sovereign, that of a “Great Ḥād̲j̲ib”; under Maḥmūd be commanded the right wing in the great battle against the Ḳarak̲h̲ānids (22 Rabīʿ II 398 = 4 Jan. …

, the ancient capital of Ḵh̲wārizm, the modern Ḵh̲īva; according to Yāḳūt, Muʿd̲j̲am, ed. Wüstenfeld, iv. 222, the name meant a wall ( ḥāʾiṭ) in the desert in the language of the Ḵh̲wārizmīs, even if there were no buildings within this. The fullest accounts of the old town and citadel of Fīl or Fīr, which was gradually washed away by the Āmū-Daryā (the last traces of it are said to have disappeared in 384 = 994), are given in al-Bīrūnī’s [q.v.] Kitāb al-Āt̲h̲ār al-Bāḳiya, p. 35, on which E. Sachau based his Zur Geschichte una Chronologie von Ḵh̲wārizm ( Sitzungsber. der phil. hist. Cl. d. K.K…

, a town on the north bank of the Āmū Daryā [q. v.] near the mouth of the Surk̲h̲ān. As Samʿānī, who spent 12 days there, testifies, the name was pronounced Tarmīd̲h̲ in the town itself ( G. M. S., xx., fol. 105b) which is confirmed by the Chinese Ta-mi (e. g. Hiouen Thsang, Mémoires sur Its contrées occidentales, I, 25). Russian officers in 1889 also heard the pronunciation Termiz or Tarmi̊z ( Sbornik materialov po Azii, lvii. 393 and 399). The town is now officially known as Termez. Tirmid̲h̲ does not seem to have been touched by Alexander the Great and is not mentioned in antiqui…

, a Mongol prince in Central Asia, great-grandson of Čag̲h̲atāi [q. v.] grandson of the Mütügen who had fallen at Bāmiyān in 1221 [see above, p. 644]. His father Yisūn-Tuwa had taken part in the events of the year 1251 [cf. the article bātū k̲h̲ān, p. 681] and shared the fate of the other rebellious princes. Like the rest of the children of Čag̲h̲atāi and Ügedei, Burāḳ and his brothers were educated in Mongolia; some years after the accession of the Great Ḵh̲ān Ḵh̲ubilāi (1260—1294) they received permission to return to their home and to …

, originally an old Turkish word for “merchant”: it is used with this meaning in the Ḳuḍatḳu-Bilik (quotations in Radloff, Versuch eines Wörtcrbuches der Türk. Dialecte, iv. 335) and by Maḥmūd Kas̲h̲g̲h̲ārī (e. g. i. 286). In the Uighur translation (from the Chinese, of the Saddharma puṇḍarīḳa the Sanskrit word sārthavāha or sārthalūha “caravan-leader” is translated sartpau; this word is explained as the “senior merchant” sati̊ḳči̊ uludg̲h̲i). Radloff therefore concludes that Turk, sart is an Indian loan-word ( Kuan-si-in Pusar, Bibl. Buddh, St. Petersburg 1911, xiv. p. 37).…

3rd pers. plur. of the Persian personal pronoun. The word, which has always had an honorific significance, was formerly used in Central Asia ( i.e., what is now Soviet Central Asia and the Sinkiang-Uygur Autonomous Region of China) in the sense of s̲h̲ayk̲h̲ or murs̲h̲id (teacher or guide) in contrast to murīd (disciple or pupil). It has still to be established when the term first appeared in this sense. It certainly existed in the middle ages; the celebrated Ḵh̲wād̲j̲a Aḥrār (died 895/1490 in Samarḳand) is always referred to as is̲h̲ān in his biography. The rank of is̲h̲ān was frequently …

, ʿAlāʾ al-Dīn ʿAṭā-Malik b. Muḥammad (623/1226-681/1283), a Persian governor and historian, author of the Taʾrīk̲h̲-i d̲j̲ahāngus̲h̲āy , a work which is almost our only source on the details of his life. His family belonged to Āzādwār, then the chief town of Ḏj̲uwavn ([ q.v.], No. 2). According to Ibn al-Ṭiḳṭaḳā ( al-Fak̲h̲rī , ed. Ahlwardt, 209) they claimed descent from Faḍl b. Rabīʿ, the vizier of Hārūn al-Ras̲h̲īd. ʿAlāʾ al-Dīn’s great-grandfather, Bahāʾ al-Dīn Muḥammad b. ʿAlī, had waited on the K̲h̲wārazm-S̲h̲āh Tekis̲h̲ [ q.v.] when in 588/1192 he passed through Āzādwār…

, an Özbek chief of the family of the Keneges, who was till 1870 prince of S̲h̲ahrisabz. This town having been conquered by the Russians, he fled with a small body of those faithful to him. Finally he was seized in Ferg̲h̲ānā and obliged to reside at Tas̲h̲kent. In 1875 he entered Russian military service and took part in the campaign against Ḵh̲oḳand. He died about 1898 at Tas̲h̲kent. (W. Barthold [B. Spuler])

, a large river of the northeastern Caucasus region (length 600 km/373 miles, with a breadth in some places of up to 547 m/1,500 feet). It rises from the glaciers of Mount Kazbek in the central Caucasus, and cuts its way through spectacular gorges, eventually into the Noghay steppe to a complex delta on the western shore of the Caspian Sed. Even the lower course through the plains is too swift for navigation to be possible on it, but much water is now drawn off for irrigation purposes. During the golden period of Arabic geographical knowledge (4th/10th century), the land of Terek m…

, Arabic orthography, K̲h̲wāḳand, later written K̲h̲uḳand (which is given a popular etymology, k̲h̲ūḳ + kand = town of the boar), a town in Farg̲h̲āna [ q.v.], where see also for the other spellings and the foundation of an independent Özbeg kingdom with K̲h̲oḳand as capital in the 12th/18th century. The accession of the first ruler of this Miñ dynasty, S̲h̲āhruk̲h̲, was followed by the building of a citadel; another citadel later called Eski Urda was built by his son, ʿAbd al-Karīm (d. 1746). ʿAbd al-Karīm and his nephe…

(a.) “the land which lies beyond the river”, i.e. beyond the Oxus or Āmū-Daryā [ q.v.], the classical Transoxiana or Transoxania, so-called by the conquering Arabs of the 1st/7th century and after in contrast to Mā dūn al-Nahr, the lands of K̲h̲urāsān [ q.v.] this side of the Oxus, although the term K̲h̲urāsān was not infrequently used vaguely to designate all the eastern Islamic lands beyond western Persia. 1. The name The frontiers of Ma warāʾ al-nahr on the north and east were where the power of Islam ceased and depended on political conditions; cf. the statemen…

“land of the mountains”; this name is an unusual linguistic phenomenon, since it consists of the Turkish word dāg̲h̲ , mountain, and of the suffix which, in the Persian language, distinguishes the names of countries; this name seems to have appeared for the first time in the 10th/16th century). An autonomous Republic of the R.S.F.S.R. with an area of 19,500 sq. miles and a population of 958,000 inhabitants (1956), it is made up of two quite distinct parts: the Caucasian Range and the cis-Casp…

( Hülegü or rather Hüleʾü , the intervocalic g being purely graphie), the Mongol conqueror and founder of the dynasty of the II-K̲h̲āns [ q.v.] of Persia, born ca. 1217, was the grandson of Čingiz-K̲h̲ān [ q.v.] by the latter’s youngest son Toluy [ q.v.]. Sent by his brother the Great K̲h̲ān Möngke at the head of an army against the Ismāʿīlīs and the Caliph, he left Mongolia in the autumn of 1253, proceeding at a leisurely pace along a carefully prepared route, the roads having been specially cleared and levelled and bridges built across …

, the name found in earlier mediaeval Islamic sources for the region along the southern banks of the middle and upper Oxus river, in the wider sense of the term (see below), with the ancient of the Balk̲h̲ as the centre of its western part and such towns as Ṭālaḳān, Andarāb and Walwālīd̲j̲ [ q.vv.] as its centres in the narrower acceptation of the term, sc. the eastern part. It comprised in its wider sense the modern Afg̲h̲an provinces of Fāryāb, D̲j̲ūzd̲j̲ān, Balk̲h̲, Sanangān, Ḳunduz, Tak̲h̲ār and Badak̲h̲s̲h̲ān. The name of the region obviously preserves a memory of the people k…

, Maḥmūd , Ilk̲h̲an [ q.v.] from 694/1295 until 713/1304, was born on 20 Rabiʿ I 670/5 November 1271, being the eldest son of Arg̲h̲ūn [ q.v.], then only in his thirteenth year. Upon his father’s accession G̲h̲āzān was appointed governor of Ḵh̲urāsān, Māzandarān and Ray, which provinces he continued to administer during the reign of Gayk̲h̲ātū [ q.v.]. He had been brought up as a Buddhist and, whilst governor, had ordered the construction of Buddhist temples in Ḵh̲abūshān (Ḳūčān); but shortly before his accession, during the war with Bāydū [ q.v.], he had been persuaded by his general…

, a town in northern Afg̲h̲ānistān, situated in lat. 36° 42′ N. and long. 67° 06′ E., at an altitude of 1,235 feet/380 m. in the foothills of the northern outliers of the Hindū-Kus̲h̲ [ q.v.]. The great classical and mediaeval Islamic town of Balk̲h̲ [ q.v.], modern Wazīrābād, lay some 14 miles/20 km. to the west of Mazār-i S̲h̲arīf, and until the Tīmūrid period was the most important urban centre of the region. Previously to that time, the later Mazār-i S̲h̲arīf was marked by the village of Ḵh̲ayr, later called Ḵh̲ōd̲j̲a Ḵh̲ayrān. On two d…

, the name of two Ḵh̲āns of the Crimea in the eighteenth century. 1. Ḳaplān Girāy I reigned three times: 1119—1120 (1707—1708), 1125—1128 (1713—1716) and 1143—1149 (1730—36). He died on the island of Chios in S̲h̲aʿbān, 1151 (Nov.-Dec, 1738). Immediately after the death of his father Salīm I, in S̲h̲aʿbān, 1116 (Nov.-Dec., 1704), he set up as a claimant to the throne but was not proclaimed Ḵh̲ān till after the death of his brother G̲h̲āzī III. His own three depositions were on each occasion the result of the u…

(literally Great China), Arabic and Persian name (the Arabic ṣīn is of course for the Persian čīn) for the seaport of Canton in the Mongol period; it is known especially from the travels of Ibn Baṭṭūṭa [q. v.] (ed. Defrémery and Sanguinetti, iv. 271 sq.) but is used by other Muslim (Ras̲h̲īd al-Dīn, Waṣṣāf) and also by Western writers (Odoric de Pordenone, Marignolli, also in the Cartu Catalana; cf. the quotations in Yule, Cathay and the Way Thither, London 1866, p. 105, and Ras̲h̲īd al-Dīn, Ḏj̲āmiʿ al-Tawārīk̲h̲, ed. Blochet, 1911, p. 493). For Ṣīn-i Kalān Ibn Baṭṭūṭa also has Ṣ…

(Turḳ, “father-herdsman”), a ridge of hills on the south bank of the Zarafs̲h̲ān near Samarḳand. The modern name is apparently connected with the legend given in the Kitāb-i Ḳandīya. Samarḳand is said to have been attacked by a hostile force over a 1000 years before Muḥammad; the inhabitants prayed to God and his prophets for help; when they awoke on the following morning, nota trace was left of the enemy’s army, but before the city was a mountain which no had seen before and on it a shepherd was grazing his sheep. It appe…

, Russian Kura, in the Arab geographers Kurr, the largest river in the Caucasus, over 600 miles in length, according to Ḥamd Allāh Ḳazwīnī ( Nuzhat al-Ḳulūb, G.M.S., XXIII/i., p. 218) 200 farsak̲h̲. Iṣṭak̲h̲rī ( B.G.A., i. 189) describes the Kur as navigable and full of fish; even at the present day very little would require to be done to make the river accessible to modern steamers from Mingečaur (a little below the mouth of the Alazan) to the Caspian Sea. The Araxes, regarded as a separate river in ancient times, always appears…

, a district on the upper course of Āmū-Daryā between the rivers Pand̲j̲ and Wak̲h̲s̲h̲, called Ḏj̲aryāb and Wak̲h̲s̲h̲āb in the middle ages; on the situation cf. also i., p. 339 sq. The pronunciation Ḵh̲uttal is given by Yāḳūt ( Muʿd̲j̲am, ii. 402); for the frequently used plural form we have evidence for the pronunciation Ḵh̲uttalān in the lampoon preserved by Ṭabarī (ii. 1492, 1494 and 1602) on the reverses suffered by the governor Asad b. ʿAbd Allāh (d. 120 = 738). On the other hand in later Persian poetry the pronunciation Ḵh̲atl…

(usually written Ḳūbīlāi but also “Ḳublāi”), Mongol emperor (1260—1294), brother and successor of Ḵh̲ān Möngke. He was probably born in 1214; when Čingiz Ḵh̲ān returned in 1225 to Mongolia from his campaign in Western Asia, Ḳubilai, who was then eleven years old, had just gained his first trophy of the chase; after the Mongol fashion, Čingiz Ḵh̲ān himself smeared his thumb wilh flesh and fat (Ras̲h̲īd al-Dīn, ed. Berezin, Trudi̊ Vost. Otd. Ark̲h̲. Obs̲h̲č., xv. 141, text). In the reign of his brother he was governor of China from 1251 and devoted himself to the conqu…

, al-Sog̲h̲d or al-Ṣog̲h̲d, a district in Central Asia. The same name (Old. Pers. Suguda, late Avestan Sug̲h̲da, Greek Sogdioi or Sogdianoi [the people] and Sogdiane [the country]) was applied in ancient times to a people of Īrānian origin subject to the Persians (at least from the time of Darius I, 522—486 b. c.) whose lands stretched from the Oxus (cf. āmū-daryā) to the Yaxartes (cf. si̊r-daryā), according to the Greek sources. The language and especially the terms relating to the calendar and festivals of the Sog̲h̲dian Zoroastrians are very fully dealt wit…

Kamāl al-Dīn b. Isḥāḳ al-Samarḳandī, a Persian historian, author of the well-known Maṭlaʿ al-saʿdain wa-mad̲j̲maʿ al-baḥrain, born at Herāt in 816 (1413), where he died in 887 (1482). His father was ḳāḍī and Imām at the court of Sultan S̲h̲āhruk̲h̲ [q. v.]. In 845 (1441) ʿAbd al-Razzāḳ went to India as an ambassador (returned in 848 = 1444), and in 850 (1446) to Gīlān; he died in the reign of the sultan Ḥusain Baiḳarā [q. v.] as governor of the Ḵh̲ānḳāh of S̲h̲āhruk̲h̲. His work depicts, with a ¶ brief mention of the birth (704 = 1304-1305) and accession (716 = 1316-1317) of the Īl…

, an Uzbeg chief of the family of the Keneges, was till 1870 prince of S̲h̲ahrisabz and had taken part, in the summer of 1868, in the siege of the citadel of Samarḳand then held by the Russians. In the summer of 1870 S̲h̲ahrisabz was conquered by the Russians under General Abromow. Bābā Beg had to flee with a small body of those faithful to him, first to the upper valley of the Zarafs̲h̲ān then to Farg̲h̲āna where he was seized by order of Ḵh̲ān Ḵh̲udāyār and handed over to the Russians. An annu…

, written Ṣag̲h̲āniyān by the Arabs, a district on the upper course of the Oxus; the capital of the district bore the same name, whence the nisbas Čag̲h̲āniyānï and Čag̲h̲ānī; the name of the river Čag̲h̲ānrūd (the modern Surk̲h̲an), which flows through Čag̲h̲āniyān, and the title Čag̲h̲ān-Ḵh̲ud̲h̲āt of the ruler of the land are of course derived from the same root. On the geography, cf. the article āmū-daryā, p. 339. The capital Čag̲h̲āniyān was four days’ journey or 24 farsak̲h̲ from Tirmid̲h̲ and three days’ journey from Kuwādiyān (the modern Kabadian). The town has bee…

, the modern S̲h̲ahr-i Sabz (“green town”, on account of the fertility of its surroundings) a town in Buk̲h̲ārā on what was once the great trade route between Samarḳand and Balk̲h̲. According to Chinese authorities, Kas̲h̲ (Chinese transcription K’ia-s̲h̲a or Kié-s̲h̲uang-na, also K’ius̲h̲a, as a town Ki’-s̲h̲e) was founded at the beginning of the seventh century a. d.; cf. J. Marquart, Chronologie der alttürkisehen Inschriften, Leipzig 1898, p. 57; Ērānšahr etc., Berlin 1901, p. 304; E. Chavannes, Documents sur les Toukiue (Turcs) occidentaux, St. Petersburg 1903, p. 146. Yā…

, a town in Central Asia, whose situation cannot now be exactly determined. In Muḳaddasī (ed. de Goeje, pp. 264 and 275) Balāsakūn (sic) or Walāsakūn is mentioned among the towns dependent on Asbid̲j̲āb (the modern Sairam, east of Čimkent). According to Yāḳūt, i. 708 Balāsāg̲h̲ūn lay “on the other side of the Saiḥūn (Sir Daryā) not far from Kās̲h̲g̲h̲ar”; on the other hand Yāḳūt, iii. 833, says that the town of Fārāb (the modern ruined site of Otrar), not far from the confluence of the Aris and …

, S̲h̲ams al-Dīn Muḥammad b. Muḥammad, brother of the preceding, a Persian statesman; as Ṣāḥib-Dīwān, he was at the head of the administration of Persia under Mongol rule in the reigns of Hūlāgū (to 1265), Abāḳā (1265— 1282) and Aḥmad (1282—1284); according to Ras̲h̲īd al-Dīn (ed. Quatremère, p. 392 et seq., 402), he was appointed to the office in 661 = 1262-1263. It is not known whether he was older or younger than his brother; nor do we know anything of his career before the year 661; he is not mentioned by his brother. In 677 = 1278 he was …

, a Mongol prince ( īlk̲h̲ān) of Persia (690—694 = 1291—1295), brother and successor of Arg̲h̲ūn (q.v., i. 430b et seq.); he received the name Īrand̲j̲īn Dūrd̲j̲ī (in Waṣṣāf Tūrd̲j̲ī) “most precious jewel”, which he bears on his coins, after his accession from his Buddhist priests (according to Waṣṣāf from Chinese); the same name was, according to Waṣṣāf, also placed on the currency notes issued in Gaik̲h̲ātū’s reign. Before his accession he was governor of Asia Minor. Muslims were particularly favoured in his reig…

, a steppe in Western Siberia, between 52° and 57° N. lat., is bounded on the west and east by the ranges of hills on the banks of the Irtis̲h̲, and Ob (Obi). The largest of the numerous salt lakes of this steppe is the Čani. The ground is as a rule marshy, so that traffic is rendered very difficult in the wet season, but not generally unfertile; the Russian villages on the border districts of the steppe are described as being particularly prosperous. The native Tatar (Turkish) population is called Barabintsi by the ¶ Russians; in the xviith century they were driven into the unfertile parts …

, a town in Persia, in the northern part of the province of Ḵh̲orāsān [q. v.] on the upper course of the Atrek [q. v.], perhaps the ancient As̲h̲ak or Arsaka, in the older Arab geographers Ḵh̲abūs̲h̲ān, later Ḵh̲ūd̲j̲ān, e.g. Muḳaddasī, B.G.A., iii. 319, 3 and Baihaḳī, ed. Morley, p. 761; also Yāḳūt under Ustuwā (i. 243, 20) according to Samʿānī ( G.M.S., xx., f. 31a); according to Yāḳūt, ii. 487, 21, the usual local pronunciation was Ḵh̲ūs̲h̲ān; Samʿānī, f. 211a, here also has only the form Ḵh̲ūd̲j̲ān (Samʿānī had himself been there). The origin of the pronunciation Ḳučan …

, the name of a lake and of a river flowing from it into the Buyir-Nor on the frontier between Manchuria and Mongolia. The river Ḵh̲alk̲h̲a is mentioned in the xiiith century in the “Secret History of the Mongols” (Russian translation by Palladius in Trudi̊ Ross, Duk̲h̲ovnoi Missii v Pekinie, iv., St. Petersburg 1866, p. 90, 91, 102 and 118 (the edition of the text promised by Pelliot has not yet appeared); in Ras̲h̲īd al-Dīn, ed. Berezin, in Trudi̊ Vost. Otd. Russkago Ark̲h̲. Obs̲h̲č., xiii., St. Petersburg 1868, Pers. text, p. 216, vol. xv., ibid. 1889, Pers. text, p. 3 sq.: Ṛalā. Since the xvit…

, Muḥammad b. Sulaimān, Ḳarak̲h̲ānid, Prince of Transoxania. His father Sulaimān-Tegīn, grandson of the “great” Tamg̲h̲ās̲h̲-Ḵh̲ān Ibrahīm, had governed the country for a short time about 490 (1097) as vassal of the Sultan Barkiyāruḳ. On the conquest of Transoxania by Ḳadr-Ḵh̲ān Ḏj̲ibraʾîl of Turkistān the young Prince Muḥammad fled to Ḵh̲orāsān; after this Ḳarāk̲h̲ānid had been defeated by the Sultan Sand̲j̲ar the Prince was appointed ruler in Samarḳand with the title Arslān-Ḵh̲ān (495 = 1102); hi…

, a tribe of West Caucasia, on the Black Sea. The country of Abk̲h̲āzia comprises the region extending from the main ridge of the Caucasus to the sea-coast, between Gagry in the north and the mouth of the Ingur in the south. Before the union with Russia it was divided politically into three parts: 1) Abk̲h̲āzia proper, on the coast from Gagry to the Galidzga under the princely family of S̲h̲erwas̲h̲idze; 2) the Highlands of Tzebelda (without any centralized government); 3) the country of Samurza…

, a district on the Wak̲h̲s̲h̲ or Surk̲h̲āb (Turk. Ḳizil Ṣū), one of the rivers which form the Āmū Daryā, called Rās̲h̲t by the Arab geographers [cf. i. 339]. The principal place (or “the fortress”, al-Ḳalʿa, al-Iṣṭak̲h̲rī, p. 340) of Rās̲h̲t corresponded as regards its situation perfectly with the modern Garm, the only town in Ḳarategin. Rās̲h̲t then formed one of the frontier lands of Islām and was defended on the east against the inroads of the Turks by a wall built by Faḍl b. Barmak [on him cf. i. 665, ii. 37]. In ancient tim…

, Fak̲h̲r al-Dīn Abū Sulaimān Dāwud b. Muḥammad, Persian poet and historian (died 730 = 1329-1330). According to his own statement he was appointed “king of poets” ( malik al-s̲h̲uʿarāʾ by G̲h̲āzān-Ḵh̲ān, Mongol ruler of Persia, in the year 701 (1301-1302); one of his poems is given by Dawlats̲h̲āh (ed. Browne, p. 227). His history bears the title Rawḍat ūli ’l-albāb fī tawārīk̲h̲ al-akābir wa ’l-ansāb and was composed in 717 (1317-1318) in the reign of Ḵh̲ān Abū Saʿīd [q. v., p. 103]; the preface is dated 25th S̲h̲awwāl of this year (31st Dec. 1317). With the exception of some short n…

, a town in Chinese Turkestān, called Su-le in the oldest Chinese sources; the same name is still used in Chinese official documents. The name Kās̲h̲g̲h̲ar first appears in Chinese transcription (K’iu-cha) in the T’ang-s̲h̲u; cf. E. Chavannes, Documents sur les Tou-Kiue (Turcs) occidentaux,St. Petersburg 1903, p. 121 sq. On the pre-Muḥammadan Kās̲h̲g̲h̲ar and the ruins of Buddhist buildings in the vicinity see A. Stein, Ancient Khotan, Oxford 1907, i. 52 sq.; do., Serindia, Oxford 1921, p. 80 sq. Arab armies did not reach Kās̲h̲g̲h̲ar; the story of Ḳutaiba’s campaign in 9…

, properly ʿIs̲h̲ḳâbād ( ʿAs̲h̲ḳ,Turk. form of the Arab.-Pers. ʿIs̲h̲ḳ, “love”), Russ. Ask̲h̲abad, capital of the Trans-Caspian region; 19, 428 inhabitants (1897); first became a township under the Russian regime; previous to 1881 was the most important Turkoman-Aul (500 tents) in the district of Ak̲h̲al-Tekke [q. v.]. The town possesses a museum (contains also ethnological exhibits of the Turkomans) and a public library (possesses also some Persian Mss.). Some 4-5 mls. to the West are the ruins of the t…

, also written Ḳāzān, in the xvth and xvith centuries the capital of a Tatar principality, in the xixth century a Russian university town, now capital of the Tatar Soviet Republic. According to legend, the town was built by Bātū. In 1391 Ḳazān was destroyed by Russian freebooters from Novgorod, and again in 1399 by the Prince Ywriy Dmitriyewič. About 1445 a powerful kingdom was founded here by Ulu-Muḥammad and his son Maḥmūdek (in Russian works Mak̲h̲mutek) who had been banished from the Golden Horde; in the same…

(Turkish “Garden palace”) Russian Bachčisirai, a Tatar town on the Crimean peninsula in the district of Taurus 20 miles from Simferopol, the capital of the district and about the same distance from the sea shore. The town lies in the narrow valley of the Čirik-Ṣu, according to Pallas “Dschuruk Su” = stinking water; the ravine of Salačik runs in an easterly direction to the mountain fortress now called Čufut-Ḳalʿa (“the fort of the Jews”), the oldest settlement in the neighbourhood of Bāg̲h̲če Sarāi. This was the ¶ chief settlement of the Jews (Karaeans) in the Crimea during the T…

, second Mongol (Ilk̲h̲ān) prince of Persia (1265—1282), born in Mongolia in March 1234. He came to Persia with his father Hūlāgū [q. v.] in 1256, and, after the death of the latter, was elected as prince by the representatives of this dynasty; five years later, the great k̲h̲ān Ḵh̲ubilai confirmed his election. The struggle with the Mamlūks of Egypt, begun by Hūlāgū, was continued by Abāḳā, but unsuccessfully, although the Mongols of Kipčāk, who had formerly been allied with the Mamlūks, had at…

, a Turkish dynasty in Central Asia, iv.th—vii.th (x.th—xii.th)centuries. From this house which ruled the lands north and south of the Thian-S̲h̲an came the first Turkish conquerors of Mā warāʾ al-Nahr in the Muslim period; the first monument of Muslim literature in Turkish, the Ḳudatḳu-Bilik or Ḳutadg̲h̲u Bilik, was written about 462 = 1069-1070 for a prince of this dynasty. In Persian histories the dynasty is usually called “family ( āl) of Afrāsiyāb (q. v., i. 175b) sometimes also “Ḵh̲āns of Turkistān”, the name “Īlek princes” or “Īlek-Ḵh̲āns” was introduced by Europ…

, Persian pronoun 3rd pers. plur. The word is used in Turkestan in the meaning of s̲h̲aik̲h̲, murs̲h̲id, ustād̲h̲, pīr, teacher, guide [see derwīsh i. 950a], in contrast to murīd, adherent, pupil. When the term first appears has still to be investigated; it certainly existed in the middle ages; the celebrated Ḵh̲od̲j̲a Aḥrār (died 895 = 1490 in Samarḳand) is always called īs̲h̲ān in his biography. The rank of īs̲h̲ān is frequently transmitted from father to son. The īs̲h̲ān lives with his followers in a dervish monastery ( k̲h̲ānḳāh, in Central Asia pronounced k̲h̲ānaka), sometimes also…

, properly ʿAbd al-Raḥmān b. Muslim (so also on his coins, but according to other statements he assumed this name much later), general, and powerful chief, leader of the religious and political mouvement in Ḵh̲orāsān, through which the Umaiyads were over-thrown and the ʿAbbāsides attained the throne. Abū Muslim was of Persian origin, probably a native of Iṣpahān (his native place is variously given in different sources), and in Kūfa he had attached himself to the ʿAbbāside Ibrāhīm b. Muḥammed. ¶ In the year 128 (745-746), being then according to Ibn al-At̲h̲īr (ed. Tornb., …

, a large “village likea town” (according to the Ras̲h̲aḥāt ʿAin al-Ḥayāt of ʿAli b. Ḥusain al-Kās̲h̲ifī, MS. of the University of St. Petersburg, Or. 293, f. 12a) six farsak̲h̲ from Buk̲h̲ārā, the birthplace of the saint ʿAbd al-Ḵh̲āliḳ G̲h̲ud̲j̲duwānī (vith = xiith century) is mentioned at quite an early date by Nars̲h̲ak̲h̲ī (ed. Schefer, p. 66 at the foot) in his account of Muḳannaʿ (second = viiith century) and probably dates from the pre-Muslim period. In the vith = xiith century there was a much frequented weekly market there (cf. the text of Samʿānī in Barthold, Turkestan v epok̲h̲u…

(Turkish pronunciation: Tekes̲h̲) b. īl-Arslān, king of Ḵh̲warizm [q. v.] 567—596 (1172—1200), of the fourth and most glorious dynasty of Ḵh̲wārizms̲h̲āhs [q. v.], was, before his accession governor of Ḏj̲and on the lower course of the Si̊r-Daryā [q. v.]; he had to fight for his throne with his younger brother Sulṭān S̲h̲āh, and in the struggle at first Takas̲h̲ and then his brother received the support of the Ḳara-Ḵh̲itai [q. v.]. When the fight was finally decided in favour of Takas̲h̲, Sulṭān S̲h̲āh succeeded with the help of the Ḳara Ḵh̲itai in establishing him…

(or Abu ’l-Ḥusain) Muḥammed b. Ibrāhīm b. Sīmd̲j̲ūr, hereditary vassal prince of Kūhistān; under three Sāmānide princes: ʿAbd al-Malik I, Manṣūr I and Nūḥ II, he was three times governor of Ḵh̲orāsān in the years 347—349, 35°—371, 376—378 (958— 960, 962—982, 986—989). During his second governorship of 20 years’ duration he practically enjoyed the esteem of an independent prince and obeyed the Sāmānides „only as far as pleased him." On the accession of Nūḥ II (365 = 976) he was overwhelmed with the high…

, Mongol dynasty in Persia, vii.th-viii.th (xiii.th-xiv.th) century. On the foundation of the kingdom and the meaning of the title of its rulers see the article hūlāgū (ii. 332b sq.); on the later rulers see the articles abāḳā (i. 4), Arg̲h̲ūn (i. 430a), gaik̲h̲ātū (ii. 128), bāidū (i. 591), g̲h̲āzān (ii. 149b sq.) and abū saʿīd (i. 103b sq.). With the death of the latter on Rabīʿ II 736 (Nov. 30 1335), the main branch became extinct in the male line; till 754 = 1353-1354, several princes, mainly from branch lines and even a princess, Sātī-Beg, sister …

or Ḵh̲īwa, a country on the lower course of the Amū-Daryā [q. v.]. Being a fertile delta area, Ḵh̲wārizm must from the earliest times have been of importance for the development of civilisation in Central Asia; in spite of the objections made by Nöldeke ( Z. D. M. G., lvi. 434 sq.), J. Marquart’s view ( Ērānšahr, Berlin 1901, p. 155) that “the much contested Airyanemwaed̲j̲ō, the home of the Awestā, is identical with Ḵh̲wārizm”, has much in its favour. According to Herodotos (iii. 117), the valley of the river Akes, which was of international importance, before Persian rule belonged to the Ḵh̲wā…

(Balaclava), Tatar Bāliḳlava, a small seaport town in the southwest of the Crimean peninsula (Government of Taurus), 8 miles from Sebastopol. The town is mentioned as early as Strabo (Chap. 312) under the name of Palakion and is said to have received this name from Palakos, the son of the Scythian prince Skiluros (second or first century B. C.). There are only popular etymologies in explanation of the name at the present day: 1. Turk, baliḳ “fish” + Greek λαβά or λαβή “catching”; 2. Ital. bella chiave “beautiful spring”. The town lies on a bay which is called by Strabo (Ch. 308) …

, Russian Ak̲h̲altsik̲h̲, Turkish Ak̲h̲isḳa or Ak̲h̲isk̲h̲a, nowadays the capital of a district of the government of Tiflis, was originally a Georgian fortress (the name means in Georgian “new fortress”). In the year 1045 (1635) it was taken by the Ottomans after a siege of 23 days and is later on mentioned as the chief town of a separate Wilāyet. After having been taken by the Russians in 1828, the fortress had to be yielded to Russia at the peace of Adrianople (1829). About Ak̲h̲alčik̲h̲ under Turkish government comp. Ḥād̲j̲d̲j̲ī Ḵh̲alīfa, Ḏj̲ihān-numā p. 408 et seq. (W. Barthold)

was in the 4th (10th) century the capital of Farg̲h̲āna; under Bābār it was the second of the large towns and was then called Ak̲h̲sī; still in the 11th (17th) century the present capital Namangān is spoken of in the Baḥr al-asrār (Ethé, India Office no. 575, fo. 108b as one of the less important sisters ( tawābiʿ) of Ak̲h̲sī. According to Bābar, Ak̲h̲sīkat̲h̲ was situated on the right bank of tie river Sir, near the place where the Kāsan-Sai joins it. At present there still exist (near the villages Ak̲h̲sī and S̲h̲āhand) the ruins of the old citadel …

, Turkī-Mongol word for “town” (also written Bāliḳ and Bālig̲h̲); appears frequently in compound names of towns, such as Bīs̲h̲bāliḳ (“Five Towns”, at the present day in ruins at Gučen in Chinese Turkestan), Ḵh̲ānbāliḳ (the “Ḵh̲ān’s Town”), Turko-Mongol name (also frequently used by European travellers in the middle ages as a name of Pekin (Cambalu)), Ilibāliḳ (on the River Ili, the modern Ilijsk) amongst others. As the town of Bīs̲h̲bāliḳ is mentioned as early as the Orkhon inscriptions (viiith century a. d.), Bāliḳ, in the meaning of town, is one of the oldest of Turkī wor…

a town in Chinese Turkestān. In the oldest Chinese records (from the 2nd cent. a. d.) the town is called Yu-tien for Yotḳan; this is the name still given to the ruins of the pre-Muḥammadan town, the most eastern part of which lies 5 miles west of the modern town. Later the name is written K’iu-tan and Ho-tan (cf. E. Chavannes, Documents sur les Toukine [ Turcs] occidentaux, St. Petersburg 1903, p. 125). The Indian name Kustana or Kustanaka “breast of the earth” in Chinese transcription Kiu-sa-tan-na is explained by Sir Aurel Stein, Sand-buried Ruins of Khotan, 1903, p. 402, as a learned et…

, a mountain system in the region where the Ob and the Irtis̲h̲ take their source. The oldest Turkish name for the southern Altai is Altin-Yis̲h̲ (“gold-mountains”; so in the Orchon inscriptions), in Chinese Kin-s̲h̲an; the same mountain-chain is occasionally denoted in scientific geography by the name of Ektag (evidently Ak-Tag̲h̲ “white mountain”) which arose from Greek traveller’s reports in the 6th century a. d., but according to later investigations the mountain-range mentioned by the Greeks must be sought not in the Altai, but in the Thien-s̲h̲an (E. Chavannes, Documents sur l…

was the founder of the dominion of the G̲h̲aznawides. Like most of the praetorians of his time, he was enrolled as a purchased Turkish slave in the bodyguard of the Sāmānides and gradually rose to the dignity of “Ḥād̲j̲ib of the Ḥād̲j̲ibs” (the chief-officer of the bodyguard). It was in this position that he appeared as the real ruler during the reign of the youthful ʿAbd al-Malik I [q. v.]; through his influence Abū ʿAlī al-Balʿamī was appointed Wezīr and was not permitted to do anything “with…

(the name is also written Tagudar and Teguder in learned works), as a Muslim called Aḥmad (e. g. on his coins with inscriptions in the Mongol alphabet and language), a Mongol ruler (Īlk̲h̲ān, q.v.) of Persia, 681—683 = 1282—1284. On his brother and predecessor see abāḳā, on his fall and successor see arg̲h̲ūn. Tekuder is said to have been baptised in his youth with the name Nicolas ( Moshemii Historia Tartarorum Ecclesiastica, Helmstedt 1741, p. 71). Immediately after his accession, his conversion to Islām was announced. According to some sources he turned churches…

(t. “Red Sand”), a desert between the Si̊r-Daryā and the Āmū-Daryā, cf. above, p. 741, ḳarā-ḳum. The country is less uniform, especially in the central part, than in the Ḳarā-Ḳum; the desert is crossed by several ranges of hills. The Ḳi̊zi̊l-Ḳum becomes more and more inhospitable as one goes southwards. The region called Adam-Ḳi̊ri̊lg̲h̲an (“where man perishes”) between the Āmū-Daryā and the cultivated region of Buk̲h̲ārā consisting of sandhills ( bark̲h̲ān) is considered especially uninviting and dangerous. In the summer there is absolutely no life in the desert,…

, a small river in the Crimea, south of Simferopol, is only known through the battle of September 20/8., 1854 (victory of the allied armies of the French, English and Turks over the Russians under Mens̲h̲ikow). (W. Barthold).

, a title of the rulers of S̲h̲īrwān, probably dating from the pre-Muḥammadan period (Baladitnrf, p. 196 infra). In the history of the conquest this ruler is called simply king ( malik) or lord ( ṣāḥib) of S̲h̲īrwān (ibid., 204 and 209). Yazīd b. Usaid al-Sulamī, governor of Armenia under the Caliph Manṣūr, took possession of the naphtha-wells ( naffāṭa) and saltworks of S̲h̲īrwān ( mallāḥāt); the eastern part of the land was therefore at that date of greater importance than the western (cf. what is said above on S̲h̲āberān as the capital of S̲h̲īrwān). The t…

(t.), “white water”, is very often used as the name of a river in the countries where Turkish is spoken. When a canal is made to branch off from a river, that part of the water which flows on along the original bed is as a rule called Aḳ Ṣu or Aḳ Daryā, and the artificial canal is called Ḳarā Ṣu or Ḳarā Daryā (black stream); but still many single streams and brooks bear the name of Aḳ Ṣu. The name has often been extended from rivers to towns and villages; specially well-known is Aḳ Ṣu in East-Turkistān on the river Aḳ Ṣu, a tributary of the river Yārkand-Daryā or Tarim. The Turkish name is not found until the 8t…

, once a great seaport, now a little town in the Crimea, Greek Σουγδαΐα or Σουγδαία, also Σουγδία, Latin and Italian Soldaia or Soldachia, Old Russian Surož; the Arabic form S̲h̲olṭāṭia in Idrīsī (transl. Jaubert, ii. 395) is probably connected with the Italian form. The name is connected with Sog̲h̲d [q. v.], the name of a country in Central Asia and explained as Iranian; its foundation is therefore ascribed to the Alans (see allān). The Alans are mentioned in the region (east of the Tauric Chersonese) as late as the xiiith and xivth centuries. Like the Greek cities, Sugdaia had an er…

or turkestan, a Persian word meaning the “land of the Turks”. To the Persians of course only the southern frontier of the land of the Turks, the frontier against Īrān, was of importance and this frontier naturally depended on political conditions. On their very first appearance in Central Asia in the sixth century a. d., the Turks reached the Oxus (cf. āmū-daryā). In the time of the Sāsānians therefore the land of the Turks began immediately north of the Oxus; according to the story given in Ṭabarī (i. 435 sq.) the Oxus was settled by an arrow-shot of Īras̲h̲ as the frontier between…

b. ʿAbd Allāh al-Ḳasrī (according to the Arabic sources; according to the Persian al-Ḳus̲h̲airī), governor of Ḵh̲orāsān under the Caliph His̲h̲ām b. ʿAbd al-Mālik, 106—109 (724—727) and 117—120 (735—738). Especially during his first term of office he conducted himself in relation to the Arabs as a fanatical adherent of the Yemenite party. With the Persian Dihḳāns (landowners) he was in high favour and was praised by them as a prudent “householder” (Katk̲h̲udā) of his province. Sāmān-Ḵh̲udāt, the an…

Buk̲h̲ārī, a Persian historian, wrote in 1233 (1818) a short summary of the geographical relations of Central Asiatic countries (Afg̲h̲ānistān, Buk̲h̲ārā, Ḵh̲īwā, Ḵh̲ōḳand, Tibet and Kas̲h̲mīr), and of historical events in those countries from 1160 (accession of Aḥmed S̲h̲āh Durrānī [q. v.] till his own times. ʿAbd al-Karīm had already left his native country in 1222 (1807-1808) and accompanied an embassy to Constantinople ; he remained there till his death, which took place after 1246 (1830), a…

, a Tatar Ḵh̲ān of Siberia, in whose reign this country was conquered by the Russians. Abu ’l-G̲h̲āzī (ed. Desmaisons, p 177). is the only authority to give information regarding his origin and his genealogical relation to the other descendants of Čingiz Ḵh̲ān. According to this source, he reigned for forty years in “Turan”, lost his eyesight towards the end of his life, was driven from his kingdom by the Russians in 1003 (1594/1595), took refuge with the Mang̲h̲i̊t (Nogai) and died among them. …

b. Aḥmad, Abū Ibrāhīm, a Sāmānid prince (amīr) of Mā warāʾ al-Nahr, who laid the foundations of the power of his dynasty, born in Farg̲h̲āna in S̲h̲awwāl 234 (28 Apr.— 26 May 849), from 260 (874) to 279 (892) governor for his brother Naṣr in Buk̲h̲ārā; he continued to reside in this town even after he became amīr of Mā warāʾ al-Nahr by the death of his brother and in 280 (893) was confirmed in this position by the caliph. In the same year he undertook a campaign as far as Ṭarāz (the modern Awliyā-A…

(“Black-eyed”), a Turkish people around Hamadān, to which they pay their tribute (Curzon, Persia and the Persian Question, London 1892, ii. 270 and 472). The Ḳaragözlü are several times mentioned in the history of the domestic troubles in Persia in the second half of the xviiith century; cf. J. v. Hammer, Geschichte des Osmanischen Reiches 2, Pest 1836, iv. 475; Taʾrīk̲h̲-i Zandīya, ed. Beer, Leiden 1888, p. 33, 42 and 93. In the first half of the xixth century the Ḳaragözlü are said to have numbered some 12,000 souls (C. Ritter, Erdkunde, viii. 404 and ix. 78). Ḳaragözlü is also the …

, a Persian historian, author of the Taʿrīk̲h̲-i Ras̲h̲īdī, born in 905 = 1499-1500, died in 958 = 1551. On his descent cf. the article Dūg̲h̲lāt (i. 1079 et seq.) ; through his mother he was a grandson of the Čag̲h̲atāi Ḵh̲ān Yūnus and a cousin of Bābur. Most of our knowledge of his life is gleaned from his own work; Bābur (ed. Beveridge, p. 11) devotes a few lines to him; the Indian historians Abu ’l-Faḍl and Firis̲h̲ta give some information about his later years. His real name was Muḥammad Ḥaidar; as he himself says, he was known as Mīrzā Ḥaidar; Bābur calls him Ḥaidar Mīrzā. ¶ After the assassinat…

, descendants of the Mongol prince S̲h̲aibān, a brother of Bātū Ḵh̲ān [q. v.]. The naines of the twelve sons of S̲h̲aibān and their earlier descendants are given by Ras̲h̲īd al-Dīn ( Ḏj̲āmiʿ al-Tawārīk̲h̲, ed. Blochet, p. 114 sqq., with notes by the editor from the anonymous Muʿizz al-Ansāb; on its importance as a source see W. Barthold, Turkestan v epok̲h̲u mongolskago nas̲h̲estwiya, ii, 56). Later writers give information on S̲h̲aibān and his descendants which is more legendary than historical; the bias of these tales is decided by the political conditio…

, also written Bas̲h̲d̲j̲ird, Bas̲h̲g̲h̲irt, Bās̲h̲g̲h̲ird and Bas̲h̲ḳird (or Bās̲h̲ḳurd), the Arabic name for the Bās̲h̲ḳirs and Magyars. The Bās̲h̲ḳirs whose territory corresponds roughly to the modern districts of Ufa and Orenburg are first briefly mentioned by Iṣṭak̲h̲rī (ed. de Goeje, p. 225 and 227) and a more detailed account of ¶ them is given by Ibn Faḍlān (Yāḳūt, i. 468 et seq.). The land of the Bās̲h̲ḳirs was then, as it still is in part, covered with forest and their numbers very small (according to Iṣṭak̲h̲rī only 2000 men). They were subject …

, a prince of Transoxiana (Mā warāʾ al-Nahr) of the house of the Ilek-Ḵh̲āns. Nothing is known of the details of his genealogical relationships with the other princes of this house; according to Ibn al-At̲h̲īr (ed. Tornb. ix. 323), he was a brother of the conqueror of Mā warāʾ al-Nahr (Naṣr b. ʿAlī), yet this statement (which seems to have originated as a mere interpolation) must probably be rejected. The name ʿAlī b. ʿAlī is not mentioned on any coins of this period, on the other hand we find t…

, also written Tok̲h̲āristān and Ṭok̲h̲airistān, a district on the upper course of the Āmū-Daryā [q.v.]. It is the name of a district formed from that of its inhabitants (like Afg̲h̲ānistān, Balōčistān etc.), but the question of the nationality and language of the Tok̲h̲ārians was of no significance in the Muslim period. With the exception perhaps of the mention of Balk̲h̲ as Madīnat Ṭok̲h̲ārā in Balād̲h̲urī, p. 408 there is nothing to show that anything was known in the Muslim period of the Tok̲h̲ārians as a people, although as late as 630 a. d. the Chinese pilgrim Hüan-Čuang (or Yüan-…

, properly Dāg̲h̲istān (Mountain land; Snouck Hurgronje, Mekka, ii. 245 noted in ¶ Mecca that the name was pronounced Dag̲h̲ustan even by people who belonged to it), a Russian territory ( oblast’) on the west shore of the Caspian Sea between 43° 30’ and 41° N. Lat., has an area of 13 228 square miles and a population of about 700,000. Its boundaries are, in the north the Sulaḳ, in the south the Samur, in the west the watershed between these rivers and the Alazan, a tributary of the Kura; the territory is divided into nine districts ( okrug). Its present boundaries and its constitution as a R…

, written Tātār, Tatār and Tatar, the name of a people the significance of which varies in different periods. Two Tatar groups of tribes, the “thirty Tatars” and the “nine Tatars”, are mentioned in the Turkish Ork̲h̲on inscriptions of the eighth century a. d. As Thomsen ( Inscriptions ¶ de l’Orkhon, Helsingfors 1896,” p. 140) supposes, even at this date the name was applied to the Mongols or a section of them but not to a Turkish people; according to Thomsen, these Tatars lived southwest of Baikal roughly as far as Kerulen. With the foundation of the empire of the Kitai [see ḳara k̲h̲itai] the Tu…

is an East-Turkish and Mongolic word, almost synonymous with the more usual Īl of Turkish dialects. The original sense of both words is “tribe”, but they are also used to denote larger tribal unions as political unities. Northern Mongolia (Ḵh̲alk̲h̲ā) is divided into four aimāḳ on the basis of the four k̲h̲āns (Tus̲h̲etu-k̲h̲ān, Tsetzen-Ḵh̲ān, Sain-Noyon and Tzasaktu-Ḵh̲an). In Afg̲h̲ānistan four nomadic tribes (Ḏj̲ams̲h̲īdī, Hazāra, Fērōzkōhī and Taimanī) are called by the comprehensive appellation of Čār (Čahār) Aimāḳ (four aimāḳ). (W. Barthold)

, according to Radloff ( Versuch eines Wörterbuches der Türk-Dialecte, St. Petersburg 1899, vol. ii., p. 924) “a Turkish tribe in Turkistan”; the same authority gives the Kirgiz (i. e. Kazak) word ḳurama (from ḳura, “to sew together pieces of cloth”) with the meaning “a blanket made of pieces of cloth sewn together”. In another passage ( Aus Sibirien 2, Leipzig 1893, i. 225) Radloff himself says that the Kurama are “a mixed people of Özbegs and Kirgiz” and their name comes from the fact, asserted by the Kirgiz, that “they are made up of patches from many tribes” ( kura to “patch together”). Ac…

, the name of two Sāmānid rulers: 1. Manṣūr b. Nūḥ I (Abu Ṣāliḥ), ruler of Ḵh̲orāsān and Transoxania (350—365 = 961—976), succeeded his brother ʿAbd al-Malik b. Nūḥ I [q.v.]. Ibn Ḥawḳal is able to describe the internal conditions of the Sāmānid kingdom under Manṣūr as an eye-witness; cf. especially B. G. A., ii. 341: fī waḳtinā hād̲h̲ā; p. 344 sq.: on the character of Manṣūr “the justest king among our contemporaries, in spite of his physical weakness and the slightness of his frame”. On the vizier Balʿamī, see balʿamī where also information is given about the Persian version of Ṭaba…

, Eastern Turkī word for agriculturists; as the name of a people, applied to the colonists transported by the Chinese government in the middle of the xviiith century from Kās̲h̲g̲h̲aria to the Ili valley; cf. Radloff, Wörterbuch, iv. 841. The Taranči are said however, even in the Ili valley, to have described themselves as the native population ( Yärlik, cf. Radloff, it. 343). They numbered 6,000 families of whom 4,100 were settled on the right and 1,900 on the left bank of the Ili; for further particulars see Radloff, Aus Sibirien, ii. 331 sq. According to a census of the year 1834 the…

, Arabic Ḏj̲urd̲j̲ānīya, a town in the northern part of Ḵh̲wārizm; on the situation of the town and the arm of the Oxus which flows past it, cf. the article āmū-daryā, i. 341a. Although the town is first mentioned by the Arabs, it was undoubtedly founded in the pre-Muhammadan period; the oldest Chinese name for Ḵh̲wārizm (Yüekien) is apparently to be traced to the name Gurgānd̲j̲. In what condition the Arabs found the northern part of the country is not narrated in the sources dealing with the Arab conquest (93 = 712). In the ivth = xth century Ḵh̲wārizm broke up into two independent kingdom…

, a word (probably from the Sanskrit, bhiks̲h̲u) which appears in East Turkī and Persian during the Mongol period; it denotes in the first place the Buddhist priesthood and in this meaning is equated to the Chinese Hos̲h̲ang, Tibetan Lama and the Uig̲h̲ur Toin. Writers of Turkish origin also, who had to write documents destined for the Mongol and Turkish population, in Uig̲h̲ur script, were called Bak̲h̲shi; according to Bābar (ed. Beveridge, p. 108b) it was also the name of the surgeon ( d̲j̲arrāḥ) among the Mongols. In the Empire of the Indian Moghuls, the Bak̲h̲shī was an o…

, the title of the ruler of Ḵh̲wārizm [q. v.] found already in existence at the Arab conquest (cf. e. g. al-Ṭabarī, ii. 1237 sq.). The same title was borne in the Muslim period by the majority of the kings and governors of this country, although the founder of the last dynasty, Iltüzar Ḵh̲ān (1804—1806), was content to describe himself on his coins (which were never issued) as “heir of the Ḵh̲wārizm-s̲h̲āhs” ( wārit̲h̲-i Ḵh̲wārizm-s̲h̲āhān (ʿAbd al-Karīm al-Buk̲h̲ārī, ed. Schefer, p. 80). This is probably the only case in Central Asia of a title retaining its signific…

, properly Faiḍābād, the name of two modern towns in Central Asia; on Faizabad in Buk̲h̲ārā cf. the article āmū-daryā, i. 340a and on Faizabad in Badak̲h̲s̲h̲ān see this article i. 552b et seq. (where it is erroneously called Faid̲h̲ābād). Faizabad in Buk̲h̲ārā, lying in a fertile valley with green pastures throughout the year, is now a town with about 3000 inhabitants, the residence of the tax-collector ( amlākdār) of the Beg of Ḥiṣār; the citadel is in ruins. Faizabad in Badak̲h̲s̲h̲ān lies on the right bank of the Kokča, which is here crossed by a wooden brid…

, a mountain range on the Caspian Sea, where the dry riverbed of the Uzboi (supposed to be the ancient bed of the Oxus) flows into the Sea. The mountains to the north of the riverbed, rising to a height of 5500 feet, are at the present day called “the Great Balk̲h̲ān” range; quite separate from them are the “Little Balk̲h̲ans” (to the south of the Uzboi) which are quite close to the Küren-Dag̲h̲. The Balk̲h̲ān Bay on the Caspian Sea has taken its name from the “Great Balk̲h̲āns”; in it is the best harbour on the eastern shores of the Sea north of the Russo-Persian frontier. On the story of an “ancient Ḵh̲w…

Maḥmūd, a Mongol ruler ( Ilk̲h̲ān) of Persia (694—703 = 1295—1304) born in the year 670 = 1271. On the accession of his father Arg̲h̲ūn (q. v., i. 430) he was appointed governor of Ḵh̲orāsān, Māzandarān arid Ray; he administered these provinces in the reign of Gaik̲h̲ātū also (cf. above p. 128). G̲h̲āzān had been brought up as a Buddhist and, while governor, ordered a Buddhist temple to be built in the town of Ḳūčān; shortly before his accession, during the war with Bāidū (q. v., i. 591), his general…

, capital of the Golden Horde; cf. the articles Ḳipčāḳ and mongols. The name is in Persian sarāi = palace; nevertheless it is frequently written ṣarāi in Arabic works. On its foundation by Bātū and the name Sarāi Berke see above, i. 683a and 709a. The geographers and historians speak only of o n e town of this name but on the coins we find a New-Sarāi ( Sarāi al-Ḏj̲adīd) mentioned: the earliest coin struck in New-Sarāi is dated 710 a. h. The only historical reference to New-Sarāi so far known is the mention of the death of the Ḵh̲ān Özbeg (the date given is 742 a. h.) in New-Sarāi in S̲h̲ams al-Dīn a…

, a Turkī saint of Ḵh̲warizm, a pupil of Aḥmad Yasawī (cf. i. 204b et seq.) who died in 562 = 1166-1167. His proper name was Sulaimān Bāḳirg̲h̲ānī and he is also called Sulaimān Atā or Ḥākim Ḵh̲od̲j̲a; this Bāḳirg̲h̲ān is not identical with the Bag̲h̲irḳān mentioned by Muḳaddasī (ed. de Goeje, p. 343, 10) but lay considerably farther north, a little below the modern town of Kungrad; the tomb of Ḥakīm Atā there is still visited by pilgrims; according to’ a biography of the saint, the name is said to be a corrup…

(t.), robber, disturber of the peace, adventurer; on these and other meanings see W. Radloff, Versuch eines Wörterbuches der türk. Dialecte, ii. 364. The existence of the word in Turkish can be first shown in the ninth (xvth) century. During the civil turmoils under the Tīmūrids the pretenders, in contrast to the actual rulers, were called ḳazaḳ: those who would not accept the verdict of fortune but led the life of an adventurer at the head of their men; cf., for example, the mention of the ḳazaḳ years ( ḳazaḳli̊ḳ) of Sulṭān Ḥusain, afterwards ruler of Ḵh̲urāsān, in the Bābar-Nāma, ed. Beveri…

, a Turkish people who call themselves Tipter or Bas̲h̲ḳurt. According to Vambéry, the name is derived from a verb tepte “to roam” and means “rovers”; in Radloff’s Wörterbuch (iii. 1114) no such verb is mentioned and the word tepter only quoted as the “name of a tribe in the gouvernement of Orenburg”. In Russian documents of the xviiith century the word tepter is frequently associated with the word babi̊l’ which is of course not a tribal name but means “peasant without land and family” According to Karamzin (vol. i., note 73), the Tepter were a mixed people compo…

, in Russian originally gorodez or gorodok mes̲h̲čerskiy, in Tatar k̲h̲ān karmān, formerly the capital of the Tatar princes subordinate to the Czar of Moscow and now a district capital in the gouvernement of Ryazan. It took its name from Ḳāsim, son of the founder of the kingdom of Ḳazān, Ūlū Muḥammad. In the war between the brothers that followed the assassination of Ūlū Muḥammad (1446), Ḳāsim was induced to enter the service of the Russian Grand Duke. The town, which bears his name, was granted him about …

, a mountainous peninsula on the eastern shores of the Caspian Sea, first mentioned under the Persian name Siyāh-Kōh (“Black Mountain”; cf. B. G.A., i. 218); the same name was given to the hills west of the Sea of Aral ( op. cit., vii. 92; see āmū-daryā). According to Iṣṭak̲h̲rī ( op. cit., i. 219), the peninsula used to be uninhabited; it was only shortly before his time (or that of his predecessor al-Balk̲h̲ī) that Turks, who had quarrelled with the G̲h̲uzz [q. v.], i. e. with their own kin, had come there and found springs and pastures for the…

(ḳarlug̲h̲), in early Arabic sources Ḵh̲arluk̲h̲, in Persian Ḵh̲alluk̲h̲, in Chinese Ko-lo-lu, name of a Turkish people, who are mentioned in the Turkish Ork̲h̲on inscriptions and in the Chinese T’ang S̲h̲u; cf. E. Chavannes, Documents sur les Tou-kiue ( Turcs) occidentaux, St. Petersburg 1903, Index. The Ḳarluḳ attained some political importance after 766, when, after the decline of the empire of the Western Turkish Ḵh̲āḳāns, they occupied the valley of the Ču [q.v.]. Their princes did not assume the title of Ḵh̲āḳān (Ḳag̲h̲an) but o…

, was also the name of a prince of the Aḳ-Ḳuyūnlī in Persia, son and successor of Sulṭān Yaʿḳūb; he only reigned for a short period from 896-897 (= 1490—1492) and was overthrown by his cousin Rustam. (W. Barthold)

, Turkish Gökče-tengiz (“blue sea”), Armenian Sewanga (Sew-Wank = : “Black cloister”), a freshwater lake in Russian Armenia (gouvernement of Eriwan), 7000 feet above sealevel, covering an area of 62 square miles and drained by one stream, the Zanga, which flows into the Araxes. As Le Strange ( The Lands of the Eastern Caliphate, p. 183) points out, the name first appears in Ḥamd Allāh Ḳazwīnī; in the Muhammadan sources of the pre-Mongol period the lake is not mentioned at all. The monastery from which the lake has received its Armenian name lies o…

(usually written: Kīmāk and wrongly vocalised: Kaimāk), name of a Turkish people on the lower course of the Irtis̲h̲. Ibn Ḵh̲urdād̲h̲bih (text in B.G.A., vi. 28 and 31) mentions a road thither (80 or 81 days) from Ṭarāz (now Awliyā Atā) or Kuwīkat, seven farsak̲h̲ distant, and Gardīzī (in Barthold, Otčet o poiezdkie v Srednjuju Aziju, p. 82 sq.) fully describes another route from Fārāb (Otrār) (via Jenikend, the modern ruins called Ḏj̲ānkent south of the mouth of the Si̊r-Daryā). According to Muḳaddasī or Maḳdisī ( B. G. A., iii. 274) a portion of the Kimäk at the end of ¶ the ivth (xth) century …

, a frontier province in the northwest of China proper; it is bounded on the south and east by the provinces of Sze-čuan, S̲h̲ensi and S̲h̲ansi, in the west and north by the territory of Kukunor, Chinese Turkestan (formerly included in Kansu, but since 1884 the separate province of Sin-Kiang) and Mongolia. With its present area of 5910 geogr. sq. m.= 125,483 sq. miles, Kansu is the third largest province of China but as regards density of population it is lower than all the other provinces of China with the exception of Kuangsi. The province first formed under the Emperor Kūbīlāi in 1282 a. d. is …