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, Mawlānā Nūr al-dīn ʿAbd al-Raḥmān, grand poète persan. Il naquit à Ḵh̲ard̲j̲ird. dans le canton de Ḏj̲ām qui dépend d’Hérat, le 23 s̲h̲aʿbān 817/7 nov. 1414 et mourut à Hérat le 18 muḥarram 898/9 novembre 1492. Sa famille était originaire de Das̲h̲t, bourgade de la région d’Iṣfahān; son père, Niẓām al-dīn Aḥmad b. S̲h̲ams al-dīn Muḥammad, avait quitté cette contrée pour celle d’Hérat; aussi le poète avait-il quelque temps signé ses œuvres du tak̲h̲alluṣ de Das̲h̲tī, avant d’adopter celui de Ḏj̲āmī. Poursuivant le cours régulier de ses études, il se sentit pris d’une…

, signifie en turc ottoman «arbre», «bois», et en turc oriental (où les formes yiʾg̲h̲ač, yiʾg̲h̲āč sont les plus fréquentes) également «membre viril» et «parasange» (cf. Ḳās̲h̲g̲h̲arī, Dīwān lug̲h̲āt al-Turk, Istanbul 1333, III, 6 et Brockelmann, Mitteltürkische Wortschatz, Budapest-Leipzig 1928, 87. Ḳās̲h̲g̲h̲arī ne donne que les formes yiʾg̲h̲āč et yiʾg̲h̲ač, mais W. Radloff, Versuch eines Wörterbuches der Türk-Dialekte, 1893, I, 150, fournit également ag̲h̲ač et d’autres formes telles que ag̲h̲atz, ag̲h̲as et yag̲h̲ač, avec les sens d’«arbre» et de «bois», mais …

, nom turc des Abazes (v. Abk̲h̲āz), donné comme surnom à plusieurs personnages de l’histoire ottomane, originaires de ce peuple: …

, petit cours d’eau de l’Anatolie méridionale, descendant du Taurus oriental et se jetant dans la Méditerranée, long d’environ 60 km, dont le canyon, profondément creusé dans les calcaires miocènes, constituait dans l’antiquité la limite de la Cilicie des plaines et de la Cilicie Trachée. Musulmans et Byzantins ont fréquemment procédé sur ses rives, aux IIIe et IVe/IXe-Xe siècles, à des échanges de prisonniers (voir ci-dessous). Les bords du cours supérieur, au dessus de Kizil Geçit, sont totalement inhabités; le long du cours inférieur, une série de …

(en turc ād̲h̲arī, «rivière rouge») l’ancien Amardus, fleuve qui traverse l’Ād̲h̲arbayd̲j̲ān et se jette dans la mer Caspienne, à 63 km. à l’Est d’Enzeli, après avoir pris le nom persan de Sefīd Rūd «rivière blanche» à son confluent avec le S̲h̲āh-Rūd, à Mend̲j̲il. Sa source est située dans la province d’Ārdilān, puis il traverse le ʿIrāḳ-i ʿad̲j̲amī vers le Nord; il a pour affluent de droite la rivière de Zand̲j̲ān et reçoit à gauche, le Kara-göl à Miyāne, puis longe le versant Sud de l’Elburz en…

, orthographe turque moderne: Akṣehir, «Ville Blanche»: I. Ville d’Anatolie intérieure, située au pied du Sulṭān Dag̲h̲. Dans l’antiquité, elle était connue sous le nom de Philomelium (voir Pauly-Wissowa, s.v.). Dans les sources anciennes, le nom de la ville apparaît sous la forme Aḳs̲h̲ar, Ak̲h̲s̲h̲ar ou Ak̲h̲s̲h̲ehir. Elle faisait partie des possessions des Sald̲j̲ūḳides et des Ḳaramān-og̲h̲lus et fut annexée …

, mot persan («lien») qui désigne tout ce qui sert à lier, attacher, fermer, limiter, au propre et au figuré (ex.: tristesse, préoccupation), mot passé en arabe et en turc; en persan, il comporte nombre d’acceptions quand il est employé en composition (ex.: …

al-Anṣārī, Asʿad b. Naṣr…

, en turc «château fort, forteresse, citadelle, place forte», entre fréquemment dans la ¶ composition de toponymes en Turquie; les plus connus sont les deux châteaux-forts qui dominent le point le plus étroit du Bosphore [voir Bog̲h̲az-i̇či̇]: sur la rive asiatique, Anadolu Ḥiṣāri̊ [ q.v.], anciennement appelé également Güzel Ḥiṣār («beau château-fort») et, sur la rive européenne, Rumeli Ḥiṣāri̊ [ q.v.] appelé également Bog̲h̲az-Kesen («barrière du Bosphore»); le premier, situé entre Kandilli et Kanlica, fut construit par le sultan ottoman Bāyezīd Ier, en 797/1395, pour prép…

, nom de la mule grise du Prophète, qui lui avait été offerte par le Muḳawḳis [ q.v.], en même temps que l’âne nommé Yaʿfūr/ʿUfayr. Après lui avoir servi de monture dans ses campagnes, elle lui aurait survécu et serait m…

(hébr. S̲h̲ēt̲h̲), Seth, le troisième fils d’Adam et d’Eve (Gen. IV, 25-6, V, 3-8), considéré dans la tradition islamique comme l’un des premiers prophètes et, comme son père, le bénéficiaire d’une écriture révélée. Il n’est pas cité dans le Ḳurʾān, mais joue un rôle considérable dans la littérature ultérieure des Ḳiṣas al-anbiyāʾ [ q.v.] (voir ci-après). Il serait né quand son père avait 130 ans, cinq ans après le meurtre d’Abel. Lorsque Adam mourut, il le constitua son héritier et exécuteur testamentaire; il lui enseigna les heures du jour et de la nuit, l’informa du déluge futur, et lui apprit le culte de la divinité, à l’état d’isolement, à chaque heure du jour. C’est à lui que remonte la généalogie de tous les hommes, puisque Abel n’a pas laissé de postérité et que celle de Caïn a disparu lors du déluge. On dit qu’il séjou…

(turc: «fleuve rouge»), ancien ["AλυΣ) Halys ou ("AλυΣ), Alys, le fleuve le plus considérable de l’Asie Mineure. Il prend sa source dans les montagnes qui séparent le wilāyet de Sīwās de celui d’Erzerūm, arrose les villes de Zarra (ait. 1360 m.) et de Sīwās (1250 m.); puis il entre dans la province d’Anḳara où il rencontre le mont Ard̲j̲īs̲h̲ et la chaîne du Ḳod̲j̲a-Dāg̲h̲ qui l’obligent à décrire une immense courbe de plus de 250 kilomètres; son cours, dirigé d’abord vers le Sud-ouest, se redresse et prend la direction du Nord, où il finit par se jeter dans la mer Noire, en aval de ¶ Bāfrā, au mi…

…

(dérivé, par l’intermédiaire du pehlevi varahrān, de l’avestique veret̲h̲rag̲h̲na), nom du dieu zoroastrien de la victoire (cf. Benveniste et Renou, Vṛta et Vṛøragna, chap. I, partie. 6 et 22); de son nom dérive celui d’un des principaux feux sacrés de l’Iran, Varhrān, ou (plus récemment) Vahrām ( ibid., 72); il préside au 20e …

, ʿAbd Allāh, poète persan, fils de la sœur de Ḏj̲āmī, né à Ḵh̲ard̲j̲ird dans le district de Ḏj̲ām, dépendant de Hérat, mort en 927/1521. Il a écrit, sur les conquêtes de Tīmūr, un Tīmūr-nāma, épopée nommée aussi Ẓafar-nāma (11th. Lucknow 1869). Il avait formé le projet de composer, lui aussi, un Ḵh̲amsa, ensemble de cinq grands poèmes, I mais il n’a pu le réaliser; on possède de lui un Shīrīn ¶ we-Farhād, un charmant Laylī we-Mad̲j̲nūn (éd. W. Jones, Calcutta 1788), un Haft manẓar qui fait pendant au Haft payhar de Niẓāmī. Il a subi l’influence de ce poète (mais non celle de ses art…

(a.), parfois également ḳawwāṣ (notamment dans les Mille et une nuits), kavas en turc moderne, terme qui, à l’origine, signifiait «archer» (de ḳaws, arc) et se rapporta par la suite au mousquetaire en général pour désigner finalem…

b. ʿAbd al-Ḏj̲āmiʿ, poète persan, l’un des panégyristes du sultan seld̲j̲ūḳide Sand̲j̲ar, était originaire de la province du G̲h̲ard̲j̲istān; il séjourna d’abord quelque temps à Hérāt, puis se rendit à G̲h̲azna où il entra au service du sultan Bahrām S̲h̲āh, fils de Masʿûd, de la dynastie des G̲h̲aznawides; au bout de quatre ans, il profita de ce que le sultan Sand̲j̲ar vint à G̲h̲azna au secours de Bahrām S̲h̲āh, qui était son cousin germain du côté maternel, pour lui adresser une ode; il vécut à…

, fondateur de la dynastie Ḳād̲j̲ār [ q.v.] de Perse. Né en 1155/1742, il…

(perse: Ahuramazda, « seigneur sage »; pehlvi: Aūharmazd; persan: Hurmazd, Hurmuz), dieu suprême des anciens Iraniens dont le nom fut donné plus tard à la planète Jupiter et au premier jour de chaque mois de l’année zoroastrienne. Dans les ouvrages des auteurs musulmans (surtout les Iraniens et notamment chez les poètes), on trouve des allusions prouvant une connaissance très imprécise du Mazdéisme; si le nom de Zoroastre (Zardus̲h̲t) intervient, on cherche vainement le nom de Hurmuzd (cf. M. Moïn, Mazdayasna, 7e et 8e parties, et l’introduction de H. Corbin); pourtant, selon Wolff ( Glossar, s.v.), on le rencontre — une seule fois — dans le Livre des Rois de Firdawsï, qui emploie le plus souvent Yazdān et, en moindre quantité, Izad. D’autre part, on relève le nom Hurmuz(d) dans les ouvrages composés par les historiens des religions: le Bayān al-adyān d’Abū l-Maʿālī, précis clair mais de proportions réduites, en langue persane, terminé vers 485/1092, le Kitāb al-Milal wa-l-niḥal d’al-S̲h̲ahrastānī (479-548/1086-1153) la …

(ou, plus souvent, fidāwī), quelqu’un qui donne sa vie pour un autre, épithète appliquée à certains fidèles de plusieurs groupements religieux et politiques. Chez les Ismāʿīliens Nizāris, on appelait ainsi les membres qui risquaient leur vie pour assassiner les ennemis de la secte. Ils agissaient aussi pour le compte des alliés politiques des Nizāris, parfois en se faisant payer. À Alamūt, à une époque tardive, ils étaient peutêtre devenus un corps spécial; mais, d’une façon générale, il semble que…

(anciennement dēw, avestique daeva, sanscrit deva «dieu»), en persan, nom des esprits du mal et des ténèbres, créatures d’Ahriman, personnification des péchés; leur nombre est légion; parmi eux, on distingue un groupe de sept démons principaux (y compris Ahriman) opposés aux Sept Ams̲h̲aspand (les Saints Immortels). «Le nom collectif de …

(a.) «portefaix», «porteur». Dans les vieilles villes aux rues étroites et tortueuses, l’emploi de portefaix est indispensable pour le transport des colis, des caisses, des meubles, etc. qui s’effectue ailleurs au moyen de bêtes de somme, de charrettes ou, maintenant, de voitures automobiles. L’attirail le plus élémentaire du …

«forteresse du pont», village de la province ottomane de Ḵh̲udāwendigār [ q.v.] dans le Nord-ouest de l’Anatolie, sur le Čürükṣū, près de Yeñis̲h̲ehir. Il doit d’être entré dans l’histoire au fait qu’il était le site d’une forteresse byzantine prise en 688/1289 par ‘Ot̲h̲mān b. Ertog̲h̲rul, chef du groupe ʿothmānli̊ de Turkmènes basé à Eskis̲h̲ehir, après la capture de Biled̲j̲ik et au cours de l’extension de l’influence ottomane dans la province en direction de Bursa [ q.v.] (cf. H. A. Gibbons, The foundation of the Ottoman empire, Oxford 1916, 32-3). (Cl. Huart*) Bibliography Sāmī Be…

, Sīstānī, Abū l-Ḥasan ʿAlī b. Ḏj̲ūlūg̲h̲. éminent poète iranien, originaire de la ville même de Sīstān (cf. Yāḳūt, s.v.; Ḳazwīnī, Nuzha, s.v.), ainsi qu’il le dit en un hémistiche: «Je juge (les autres villes) d’après Sīstān, parce qu’elle est ma ville (natale)». Le tak̲h̲alluṣ Farruk̲h̲ī unit les idées de bonheur et de beauté physique. Son père, Ḏj̲ūlūg̲h̲ (selon ʿAwfī et Dawlats̲h̲āh) ou Kūlūg̲h̲ (selon Ad̲h̲ar et Hidāyat), était au service du gouverneur de la province de Sīstān. Selon Niẓāmī-i ʿArūḍī, qui fournit les plus sûrs renseig…

, Gīlān-S̲h̲āh, ispahbad du Ṭabaristān, surnommé le Grand ( buzurg) et le Vertueux ( d̲h̲ū l-manāḳib), fils de Dābūya, conquit le Māzandarān et rétablit le calme sur les frontières. Défait par les Daylamites révoltés, il s’enfuit à Āmul et se fortifia dans le château de Fīrūzābād; ayant fait croire aux assiégeants qu’il avait une énorme provision de pain, il se délivra par ce moyen. Il donna asile aux Ḵh̲ārid̲j̲ites poursuivis par al-Ḥad̲j̲d̲j̲ād̲j̲, mais les combattit et mit à mort leurs chefs à l’approche d’…

, Bender, en persan (passé en turc), port de mer ou sur un grand fleuve; passé en arabe de Syrie (Barthélémy) et d’Égypte avec le sens de place, lieu de commerce, du change de la banque (Bocthor, Vollers) et même ouvroir (Cuche). S̲h̲āh-bandar, en persan, douanier, percepteur; en turc, consul et, anciennement, syndic de marchands. En composition, dans la nomenclature géographique de l’Iran: sur la mer Caspienne (rive Sud), Bandar-Pahlavi ([ q.v.]; anc. Enzeli); B.-Gaz, le plus sûr port de la région; à quelque 50 km. vers le Nord, B.-S̲h̲āh, terminus du Transiranien…

(avestique Yima Ḵh̲s̲h̲aēta «Yima le brillant») et par abréviation, Ḏj̲am, héros iranien «resté vivant dans la tradition populaire et littéraire, depuis les temps indo-iraniens jusqu’à nos jours» (voir les textes groupés, traduits et commentés par A. Christensen, Le premier homme et le premier roi dans l’histoire légendaire des Iraniens, II). Au héros de l’Inde, Yama fils de Vivasvant, tantôt homme immortel devenu dieu, tantôt le premier humain qui ait subi la mort dont il devient le dieu (Rig-Véda, Mahabharata, Atharva-Véda; cf. les textes dans Christensen, o.c.) correspond, da…

, cérémonie de la levée du voile de la nouvelle mariée, et cadeau fait par le mari à sa femme à cette occasion. D’après al-Ḏj̲urd̲j̲ānī, qui se fonde sur Muḥyī l-dīn al-ʿArabī ( Definitiones, éd. Flügel 80, 294), d̲j̲ilwa désigne l’état dans lequel se trouve le mystique à la sortie de la k̲h̲alwa: rempli des effluves des attributs divins, sa personnalité propre a disparu et se confond avec l’essence de Dieu (cf. Guys, Un derviche algérien, 203). L’un des deux livres sacrés des Yazīdis [ q.v.] s’appelle Kitāb al-Ḏj̲̲ilwa [ q.v.]. (Cl. Huart)

(Ferdōsī), poète iranien, l’un des plus grands poètes épiques, auteur du S̲h̲āhnāma (S̲h̲āhnāmè, Livre des Rois). Son nom et celui de son père varient suivant les auteurs (Manṣūr b. Ḥasan, selon al-Bundārī [ q.v.]); on est d’accord sur son surnom patronymique et son sobriquet: Abū l-Ḳāsim Firdawsī. Selon Niẓāmī ʿArūḍī, la plus ancienne source (Č ahār maḳāla, trad. E. G. Browne, 54), il naquit à Bāz̲h̲, canton de Tabarān, arrondissement de Ṭūs [ q.v.]. La date de sa naissance (vers 329-30/940-1) est fondée sur une raison valable: en l’année de l’avènement du sultan Ma…

, historien persan, vécut probablement au cours du XVIe et du XVIIe siècle. Entré dans les services du gouvernement à Fūman, ancienne capitale du Gīlān (Ch. Schefer, Chrest. pers., II, 93), il fut chargé du contrôle de la comptabilité par le vizir de cette localité, Behzād-beg, vers 1018 ou 1019/1609-1610; puis, après avoir servi d’autres vizirs, il fut emmené en ʿIrāḳ par ʿĀdil ¶ S̲h̲āh. Il a écrit, en persan, le Taʾrik̲h̲-i Gīlān, histoire du Gīlān depuis 923/1517 jusqu’en 1038/1628. Cet ouvrage, publié par B. Dorn (qui en fournit un résumé dans son introduction),…

, Abū Manṣūr Muḥammad b. Aḥmad (ou Muḥammad b. Muḥammad b. Aḥmad), poète auquel on doit le plus ancien texte connu d’épopée nationale en langue persane. Il naquit on ne sait en quelle ville (Ṭūs, Buk̲h̲ārā, Balk̲h̲ ou Samarḳand) entre 318-329/ 930 et 940, car il avait au moins vingt ans lorsqu’il devint panégyriste des émirs de Čag̲h̲āniyān puis de l’émir sāmānide Manṣur b. Nūḥ (350-66/961-76); de plus Firdawsī, qui reprit après lui la composition du Livre des Rois ( S̲h̲āh-nāma). assure que Daḳīḳī était jeune homme quand il entreprit cette œuvre, sur l’ordre de l’émir Nūḥ …

(Amīr) b. ʿAlāʾ al-dawla Bak̲h̲tīs̲h̲āh, littérateur persan, descendant d’une famille d’Isfarāʾīn dans le Ḵh̲urāsān où elle possédait des propriétés foncières; son père était un des plus intimes courtisans de S̲h̲āh-Ruk̲h̲, fils de Tīmūr; lui-même prit part à la bataille que les Tīmūrides Abū l-G̲h̲āzī Sulṭān Ḥusayn et Sulṭān Maḥmūd se livrèrent près d’Andak̲h̲ūd. Il avait environ cinquante ans quand il se mit à composer sa Tad̲h̲kirat al- s̲h̲uʿarāʾ («Mémorial des poètes»), terminée vers 892/1487, vers la fin de sa vie dont la date est ignorée. Dans ses Mad̲j̲ālis al- nafāʾis (chap…

, mot arabe emprunté à l’araméen ( kurseyā, forme syriaque; en hébreu: kissé; v. Th. Nbldeke, Mandäische Grammatik, 128; S. Fraenkel, De vocabulis peregrinis, 22; L. Koehler, W. Baumgarten, Lexicon in Veteris Testamenti Libros, 446), qui peut signifier siège, dans un sens très général (chaise, chaire, trône, tabouret, même banc). Or, dans la vie quotidienne des Musulmans médiévaux, il désigne plus spécifiquement un tabouret (donc, sans dossier ni accoudoirs) et ce sont plutôt d’autres termes qui s’appliquent au trône ( sarīr et tak̲h̲t, par exemple). Relevant, par deux fois, kursī, …

(p.), le gypaète ( Gypaetus barbatus), le plus grand des oiseaux de proie de l’ancien continent, qui habite de préférence le voisinage des neiges éternelles; il enlève les os des animaux morts, les brise sur les rochers et en mange les fragments, de sorte que le poète persan Saʿdī a pu dire que le ḥumā avait la prééminence sur les autres oiseaux parce qu’au lieu de se repaître de chair vive il ne mangeait que des os ( Gulistān, I, hist. 15). Celui qui tue volontairement un ḥumā périra dans l’espace de quarante jours. Le bon augure qui s’attache à cet oiseau est démontré par un autre vers du Gulistān (I…

, poète ottoman, homme de lettres et fonctionnaire (992-1071?/1584-1661?). On rapporte qu’il fut également bon calligraphe et cultivateur passionné de fleurs. Ibrāhīm I le surnomma sers̲h̲üküfed̲j̲i (čičekči bas̲h̲i̊), (voir Orner Faruk Akün, dans İA, art. San Abdullah). Dans ses propres travaux, il est appelé ʿAbd Allāh b. al-Seyyid (ou al-S̲h̲erīf) Muḥammad b. ʿAbd Allāh (Akün, loc. cit.). Il semble qu’il soit né à Istanbul, mais les sources ne s’accordent pas sur la date de sa mort. Son père Sayyid Muḥammad fuit le Mag̲h̲rib pour Istanbul et s’y i…

, charme, incantation. Pour l’étymologie et l’emploi ancien du mot, voir Salemann, dans Gr. I. Ph. I/1, 304, et surtout H. W. Bailey, BSOS, 1933-5; 283 sqq. Aujourd’hui, ce mot désigne surtout en Perse, le charme contre la morsure des bêtes venimeuses; certains darwīs̲h̲s, qui ont soi-disant le pouvoir de charmer les serpents, les scorpions, etc., peuvent, moyennant gratification, communiquer à d’autres personnes leur immunité; souvent, c’est une partie du corps qui est ainsi protégée, comme la main droite ou gauche, …

, troisième roi mythique de la dynastie iranienne des Kayānides [ q.v.] correspondant à Kavi Haosrovah de la tradition religieuse (voir A. Christensen, Les Kayanides, Copenhague 1931, 90-2 et index). Fils de Siyāwus̲h̲/Siyāwak̲h̲s̲h̲ [ q.v.] et petit-fils, par sa mère, d’Afrāsiyāb [ q.v.], il naquit selon la tradition nationale (A. Christensen, op. cit., 114-7) après la mort de son père et fut élevé au milieu des bergers de la montagne de Ḳalū, près de Bāmiyān, dans l’ignorance de son illustre origine; mais celle-ci se révéla bientôt: à sept ans,…

, épopée persane, attribuée à Abū l-ʿAlāʾ ʿAṭāʾ b. Yaʿḳūb, connu sous le nom de Nakūk (nommé: ʿAṭāʾī b. Yạʿḳūb, connu sous le nom de ʿAṭāʾī Rāzī dans Blochet, Catal. mss persans Bibl. Nat. Paris, III, 15, n° 1189). Selon Riḍā Ḳulī Ḵh̲ān Hidāyat, «certains, par erreur, ont considéré ces deux noms comme désignant deux poètes: il n’en est pas ainsi; c’est le même personnage» ( Mad̲j̲maʿ al-fuṣaḥāʾ, I, 342). Poète à la fois en arabe et en persan (voir sa notice dans al-Bāk̲h̲arzī, Dumyat al-ḳaṣr), fonctionnaire sous le règne du sultan g̲h̲aznavide Ibrāhīm (1059-1099) qui, mécontent …

, kāg̲h̲id (du persan kāg̲h̲ad̲j̲, d’origine peut-être chinoise), papier. Dans le période la plus ancienne de l’évolution culturelle de l’Islam, l’Orient ne connaissait que le papyrus [ q.v]. comme matériel d’écriture; se sont des prisonniers de guerre chinois qui, après la bataille d’Aṭlak̲h̲ près de Tālās, en 134/751, introduisirent pour la première fois à Samarḳand l’industrie de la papeterie à partir de la toile, du lin, ou des chiffons de chanvre selon les méthodes employées en Chine. Les principaux genres de papier fabriqués alors étaient les suivants: fīrʿawnī (papier phara…

(forme arabe: Ḏj̲undaysābūr, Ḏj̲undīsābūr, ville du Ḵh̲ūzistān fondée par le Sāsānide S̲h̲āpūr Ier (d’où son nom, wandēw S̲h̲āpūr « acquise par S̲h̲āpūr », d’après Nöldeke, Geschichte der Perser, 41, n. 2) qui la peupla de prisonniers grecs. C’est la ville connue en syriaque sous le nom de Bēt̲h̲-Lāpāt, corrompu en Bēl-Ābād̲h̲ et maintenant presque méconnaissable sous les formes nīlāb et nīlāṭ; le site est marqué aujourd’hui par les ruines de S̲h̲āhābād (voir Rawlinson, dans Journ. of the Royal Geogr. Soc., IX, 72; de Bode, Travels in Luristan, II, 167). La ville fut prise par le…

(χάλαµοΣ, roseau), calame, instrument servant à écrire l’arabe. C’est un tube de roseau ¶ pris entre deux nœuds, taillé en biseau dans la partie légèrement renflée la plus éloignée du nœud, et avec un bec fendu, comme chez nous pour la plume d’oie et plus tard pour la plume de fer. Il doit être très dur et ferme, de manière à ne pas s’user trop vite; la meilleure espèce de roseau est celle de Wāsiṭ, qui croît dans les marais du ʿIrāḳ ( Baṭāʾiḥ), mais celle des marécages d’Égypte (aI-Muḳaddasī, BGA, III, 203 l. 13) ou encore celle du Fāris étaient également appréciées. Les roseaux proven…

, mot persan désignant une écuelle ovale en métal, en bois ou en noix de coco (calebasse) tenue suspendue à l’épaule par une chaîne, dans laquelle les derviches mettent les aumônes qu’ils récoltent ou la nourriture qu’on leur donne. L’étymologie de ce mot est obscure; il y en a une, populaire, donnée par les Persans: kas̲h̲ «tire» (impér.) et kūl «épaule», ce que l’on tire sur l’épaule; mais comme on trouve une forme k̲h̲ačkūl attestée chez d’anciens poètes (Anwarī, Sayf Isferengī), cette explication paraît difficilement admissible. Les dictionnaires donnent comme pr…

, mot persan signifiant «source, fontaine», qui est passé en turc avec le même sens. C’est le nom d’une bourgade en Asie Mineure, avec un port naturel sûr et vaste sur la côte méditerranéenne, à l’entrée du golfe du même nom, à l’extrémité Nord-ouest de la presqu’île d’Urla en face de l’île de Chio (26° 20´ Ouest, 38° 23´ Nord). C’est la principale ville d’un ḳadāʾ du wilāyet d’İzmir. La ville avait, en 1950, 3 706 habitants, le ḳaḍāʾ, 12 337. A l’origine partie de la principauté (par la suite sand̲j̲aḳ) d’Aydi̊n, elle appartint aux Ottomans depuis l’époque de Bāyazīd II. Il y a une …

, surtout connu sous sa kunya, compagnon du Prophète. Ce fut chez lui que celui-ci s’installa lors de son émigration à Médine, en attendant la construction de sa mosquée et de sa propre demeure. Il prit part à toutes les expéditions du Prophète, fut présent à toutes les batailles du début de l’Islam et servit sous les ordres de ʿAmr b. al-ʿĀṣī lors de la conquête de l’Égypte. Par la suite, il reçut de ʿAlī la charge de gouverneur de Médine; mais il fut forcé de rejoindre le gendre du Prophète au ʿIrā…

, Persian historian, lived probably in the 16th-17th centuries. Entering into government service in Fūman, the old capital of Gīlān (Ch. Schefer, Christ . pers ., ii, 93) he was appointed controller of accounts by the vizier of the place, Behzād-beg, about 1018 or 1019/1609-10. After serving under several other vizers, he was taken to ʿIrāk by ʿĀdil S̲h̲āh. He wrote in Persian Taʾrīk̲h̲-i Gīlān , a history of Gīlān from 923/1517 to 1038/1628. This book, published by B. Dorn (with a résumé in his introduction), completes the histories of Ẓahīr al-Dīn [ q.v.] and ʿAlī b. S̲h̲ams al-Dīn [ q.v.]. (…

(or, more often, fidāwī ), one who offers up his life for another, a name used of special devotees in several religious and political groups. Among the Nizārī Ismāʿīlīs it was used of those members who risked their lives to assassinate the enemies of the sect. They acted also on behalf of political allies of the Nizārīs, sometimes at a price. At Alamūt they may have become, in later years, a special corps; but normally tasks of assassination seem to have been assigned to anyone…

, in Turkish ‘castle, fortress, citadel, stronghold’, a common component of place-names in Turkey. The best-known are the two castles which control the narrowest point of the Bosphorus [see bog̲h̲az-i̇či̇ ]: on the Asiatic side Anadolu Ḥiṣārī [ q.v.], also called in earlier times Güzel Ḥiṣār (ʿbeautiful castle’), on the European side Rumeli Ḥiṣāri̊ [ q.v.], also called Bog̲h̲az-Kesen (ʿthe barrier of the Bosphorus’). The former, situated between Kandilli and Kanhca, was built by the Ottoman sultan Bāyezīd I in 797/1395 in preparation for the siege o…

(Old Persian: Ahuramazda, “wise lord”; Pahlavi: Auharmazd; Persian: Hurmazd, Hurmuzd, Hurmuz), supreme god of the ancient Iranians, whose name was later given to the planet Jupiter and to the first day of each month of the ¶ Zoroastrian year. In the works of Muslim writers (especially the Iranians and particularly the poets) are found allusions which display a very imprecise knowledge of Mazdaism; although there occurs the name of Zoroaster (Zardus̲h̲t), one searches in vain for the name of Hurmuzd (cf. M. Moīn, Mazdayasna , parts 7 & 8 and the introd. by …

(originally dew , Avestan daeva , Sanskrit dēva ), in Persian the name of the spirits of evil and of darkness, creatures of Ahriman, the personification of sins; their number is legion; among them are to be distinguished a group of seven principal demons, including Ahriman, opposed to the seven Ams̲h̲aspand (Av. aməša spənta , the “Immortal Holy Ones”). “The collective name of the daiva designates ... exclusively the inimical gods in the first place, then generally other supernatural beings who, being by nature evil, are opposed to the good and true faith .... These daiva, these dēv …

(Hebr. S̲h̲ēt̲h̲), Seth the third son of Adam and Eve (Gen. IV, 25-6, V, 3-8), regarded in Islamic lore as one of the first prophets and, like his father, the recipient of a revealed scripture. He is not mentioned in the Ḳurʾān, but plays a considerable role in the subsequent Ḳiṣaṣ al-anbiyāʾ [ q.v.] literature (see below). He is said to have been born when his father was 130 years of age, five years after the murder ¶ of Abel. When Adam died, he made him his heir and executor of his will. He taught him the hours of the day and of the night, told him of the Flood to come…

, the name of the grey mule of the Prophet, which had been given to him by the Muḳawḳis [ q.v.], at the same time as the ass called Yaʿfūr/ʿUfayr. After serving as his mount during his campaigns, she survived him and died at Yanbuʿ so old and toothless that in order to feed her the barley had to be put into her mouth. According to the S̲h̲īʿī tradition, ʿAlī rode upon her at the battle of the Camel [see al-d̲j̲amal ] and at Ṣiffīn. As Duldul in Arabic means a porcupine, it is possible that she derived her name from her gait, but This is far from certain. For…

(p.), the bearded vulture ( Gypaetus barbatus), the largest of the birds of prey of the Old World, which is usually found in the regions of perpetual snow; it carries off the bones of dead animals, breaks them on rocks and eats the fragments, which led the Persian poet Saʿdī to say that the humā was superior to all the other birds because instead of feeding on ¶ living flesh it ate only bones ( Gulistān , i, story 15). It was thought that anyone who intentionally killed a humā would die within forty days. That this bird was considered to be of good omen is illustrated by another verse of the Gulistān (i, …

Gīlān-s̲h̲āh , ispahbad of Ṭabaristān, known as the Great ( buzurg ) and the Virtuous ( d̲h̲u ’l-manāḳib ), son of Dābūya, conquered Māzandarān and restored peace to the frontiers. When defeated by the Daylamīs in their revolt, he fled to Āmul and entrenched himself in the castle of Fīrūzābād; he saved himself by the ruse of making his besiegers believe that he had enormous stocks of bread. He gave asylum to the K̲h̲ārid̲j̲īs when they were being pursued by al-Ḥad̲j̲d̲j̲ād̲j̲, but fought aga…

( Amīr ) b. ʿAlaʾ al-Dawla Bak̲h̲tīs̲h̲āh , a Persian writer from a family owning estates at Isfarāʾ in in the K̲h̲urāsān. His father was one of the most intimate courtiers of S̲h̲āh-Ruk̲h̲. son of Tīmūr; he himself took part in the battle fought by the Timurids Abu’l-G̲h̲āzī Sulṭan Ḥusayn and Sulṭan Maḥmūd near Andak̲h̲ūd. He was about fifty years of age when he began to write his Tad̲h̲kirat al-s̲h̲uʿarāʾ (“Memorial to the Poets”), which he finished in about 892/1487 towards the end of his life, the date of his death being unknown. In his Mad̲j̲ālis al-nafāʾis (chap…

, daughter of Aḥmad Pas̲h̲ā, wife of Sulaymān Pas̲h̲a Mizrāḳli̊ ("Abū Laylā"), Ottoman governor of Bag̲h̲dād. During the lifetime of her husband she took part in the government of the province, holding audiences where the petitions were presented to her through the intermediary of an eunuch. She had also a mosque and a caravanseray built, bearing her name. When on the death of Sulaymān (1175/1761) power was about to slip from her hands, she stirred up against his successor, ʿAlī Pas̲h̲a, first t…

(Avestan Yima K̲h̲s̲h̲aēta “Yima the brilliant”), in abbreviated form Ḏj̲am , an Iranian hero who has “remained alive in popular and literary tradition, from Indo-Iranian times until our own day (see the texts collected, translated and commented upon by A. Christensen, Le premier homme et le premier roi dans l’histoire légendaire des Iraniens , ii). To the Indian hero Yama, son of Vivasvant, sometimes immortal man become god, sometimes the first human to have suffered death and to have become its god ( Rig-Veda Mahābhārata , Atharva-Veda cf. the texts in Christensen, op. cit.) there cor…

, the third mythical ruler of the Iranian dynasty of the Kayānids [ q.v.], corresponding to Kavi Haosrovah of the religious tradition (see A. Christensen, Les Kayanides , Copenhagen 1931, 90-2 and index). He is reckoned as the son of Siyāwus̲h̲/Siyāwak̲h̲s̲h̲ [ q.v.] and the grandson, through his mother, of Afrāsiyāb [ q.v.], and according to the national tradition (Christensen, 114-17) was born after his father’s death and was brought up amongst the mountain shepherds of Ḳalū near Bāmiyān, in ignorance of his illustrious origin. This, however, s…

, ʿAbd allāh , Persian poet, son of Ḏj̲āmī’s sister, born in K̲h̲ard̲j̲ird in the district of Ḏj̲ām, a dependency of Herāt, died in 927/1521. He wrote a Timūr-nāma , an epic known also as Ẓafarnāma (lith. Lucknow 1869), on the subject of Tīmūr’s conquests. He had planned to write a K̲h̲amsa . a collection of five long poems, but this work he was unable to complete; of it we possess a S̲h̲īrīn and Farhād , a charming Laylī and Mad̲j̲nūn (ed. W. Jones, Calcutta 1788) and a Haft manẓar on the model of the Haft paykar of Niẓāmī. He was influenced by this poet (though not …

(t., “small hot spring”), a town in Bulgaria, 45 miles to the South of Silistria, was until the treaty of Berlin (July 13, 1878) a part of the Ottoman ¶ Empire. It was in this town that a treaty of peace between ʿAbd al-Ḥamīd I, the Ottoman Sulṭān and Catherine II, the Empress of Russia, was signed on the 12 Ḏj̲umādā I, 1188 (July 21st, 1774). The Russian army having appeared before S̲h̲umla and the troops of the grand vizier Muḥsin-Zāde Muḥammad Pas̲h̲a, having abandoned it in a body, the latter decided to send plenipotentiaries to Field-Marshal Romanzoff; he chose the reʾīs-efendi Munīb and Kiay…

(in Ptolemy ΔελυμκΐΣ), the mountainous part of Gīlān, which is inhabited by a tribe of the same name (the Δελυμαῖοι of Polybius); it is bounded on the north by Gīlān proper, in the east by Ṭabaristān or Māzandarān, in the west by Ād̲h̲arbaid̲j̲ān and the land of al-Rān, in the south by the districts of Ḳazwīn and Ṭarm and in part by Rai. The kings of the land belonged to the Ḏj̲astān family and resided in Ṭarm. The Dailamites were heathen and therefore exposed to slave-hunters, till they elected the ʿAlid al-Ḥasan b. Zaid as their suzerain (in 250 = 864; Ibn al-At̲h̲īr, vii. 85; Masʿūdī, Murūd̲j̲, v…

ʿAbd al-Mad̲j̲īd ʿIzz al-Dīn, in Turkish also called Firis̲h̲te-og̲h̲lu and in Arabic Ibn Firis̲h̲ta, one of the principal disciples of Faḍl Allāh [q. v., p. 37] the founder of the Ḥurūfī [q. v.] sect, died in 874 (1469). In 833 (1430) he wrote a book on the doctrines of the sect in Turkish, entitled ʿIs̲h̲ḳnāme (Book of mystic Love), which is placed by the adepts on a level with Faḍl Allāh’s Ḏj̲āwidān, so that this name is also given to it. There also exists from his pen a Hidāyet-nāme (Book of Conduct) in Turkish and an Āk̲h̲iret-nāme (Book of Future Life). The Is̲h̲ḳ-nāme has been lithographe…

(in Turkish āzerī, “Red River”), the ancient Amardus, a river which flows through Ād̲h̲arbāid̲j̲ān and enters the Caspian Sea, forty miles east of Enzeli, after having received the Persian name of Sefīd-Rūd, “White River”, at its junction with the river S̲h̲āh-Rūd at Mend̲j̲il. Its source lies in the province of Ārdilān, and it begins by crossing ʿIrāḳ-ʿad̲j̲amī to the north; its right bank tributary is the Zend̲j̲ān, on the left it receives the Ḳara-göl at Miyāne, then it runs along the southern …

, in Turkish Ḳalʿa-i Sulṭānīya Bog̲h̲azi, the ancient Hellespont, a strait which joins the Archipelago to the sea of Marmora (Propontis), and separates Europe from Asia (44 miles long and one to five miles broad). Its shores are covered with fortifications which guard the approach to Constantinople and are armed with Krupp guns of large calibre; their garrison consists of two regiments of unmounted artillery and one of engineers. The forts and batteries on the Asiatic side are: Ḳalʿa-i Sulṭānīya, Ḳūm…

(from ΔόβηρεΣ, in Herodotus V, 16 a Paeonian people, or from Dobrotič, the name of a Bulg̲h̲ār ruler of the xivth century, or from the Bulgarian dobriče “stony, unfertile plain”), a district in Roumania, a peninsula bounded by the lower Danube and the Black Sea (from the coast of Balčiḳ to the delta of the river); it is a broad, arid plateau from 200—300 feet high, of grey sand, covered with swamps, without drinking water, but rich in pasture for cattle; it has numerous lakes of which Ḳaraṣū in the centre and the lake of…

(t.) “interior” the name of a province in Asia Minor, which at present forms an independent sand̲j̲aḳ of the wilāyet of ʿAdana [q. v.] with Selefke as its chief town; 17 villages belong directly to it and also the nāḥīya of Ayās̲h̲. with 13 villages and Bulād̲j̲alu with 6 villages. This Sand̲j̲aḳ comprises four ḳaḍā, viz. Ermenek [q.v.] Mūṭ, Gulnār (Kilindria, Celendaris) and Anamūr (q. v;, capital Čoraḳ). The popalatioa consists of ¶ 45,000 Turks, 15,500 Kurds, 14,000 Greeks, 12,000 gipsies, and 8780 of various origins. The hills are covered with woods (221,818 hec…

, Yaḥyā Sībak, a Persian poet of Nīs̲h̲āpūr, died 852 (1448-1449) or 853 (1449-1450), had at first the name Tuffāḥī (in allusion to Sībak a “little apple”); he also took the names Ḵh̲umārī and Asrārī. He wrote a prose work entitled Ḥusn u Dil “Beauty and Heart”, a romance full of mystic allegories and symbolical expressions, transl, into English by A. Browne (Dublin 1801) and W. Price (London 1828), into German by R. Dvořák (Vienna 1889), and imitated in Turkish by Lāmiʿī, Āhī and Wālī; his S̲h̲atbistān-i Ḵh̲ayāl (in the London and Paris Mss.: Nikāt) “Abode of Fancy”, is a collection of …

( ḳačar “marching quickly”; cf. Sulaimān Efendi, Lug̲h̲at-i Čag̲h̲atai, Stambul 1298, p. 214), the name of the present ruling dynasty of Persia. It takes its origin from the Turkoman tribe of the same name settled in the district of Astarābād [q. v.], but which had not always been there. Persian historians assert that it is a branch of the great tribe of Ḏj̲alāir [q. v.] and that it takes its name from Ḳād̲j̲ār Noyān, son of Sertāḳ Noyān, who had been the tutor of G̲h̲āzān Ḵh̲ān [q. v.]; this Sertāḳ is …

b. Hasan Pas̲h̲a, surnamed the conqueror of Hamad̲h̲ān, succeeded his father in the government of the provinces of Bagdad, Baṣra and Mārdīn; he recaptured Kirmāns̲h̲āhān and Ardelān (1144= 1731) from the Persians. Taking advantage of the Turkish victory at Ḳorid̲j̲ān, he concluded a treaty, according to which the Araxes should be the frontier between the two realms, but Tibrīz was restored to the Persians. He defended Bagdad against the attempts of Nādir S̲h̲āh (1145 = 1733), was commissioned to c…

, called Nis̲h̲ānd̲j̲ī, Grand Vizier of the Turkish Sulṭān Sulaimān II, a native of Ayās̲h̲ in the province of Angora. After first of all filling the office of a čoḳadār (mantlebearer) to the Sulṭān he was retired with the rank of Beylerbey of Rumili. In 1089 (1678) he entered ¶ the office of ṭug̲h̲rā-writers and on the outbreak of unrest in the reign of Sulṭān Muḥammad IV received the rank of a vizier (1098 = 1687). After the assassination of Siyāwus̲h̲ Pas̲h̲a in the rebellion of the Janissaries, which took place on the accession of Sulaimān II …

(also called Ḳaramān from the name of the dynasty which reigned there in the xivth century), a town in Asia Minor, capital of the ḳazā of the same name and of the sand̲j̲aḳ of Konia, to the S.E. and 35 miles from this town. It is 4,000 feet above sea-level, has 2,000 houses, 7,500 inhabitants, 105 mosques, 21 Friday mosques, dervish monasteries, 515 shops, 30 warehouses, 9 cafes, 4 caravanserais, 14 baking ovens, 7 baths, 5 mills, 1 military depot, 110 fountains, 1 barracks, 1 Greek school, 10 Muslim schools,…

, (the name means “badger” in Eastern Turkī), companion and friend of the Sald̲j̲uḳ Sulṭān Ṭog̲h̲rul-Beg, was the first to hold the office of chief of police ( s̲h̲iḥna) in Bag̲h̲dād after the burning of that town in 451 (1059); he commanded a section of the advance-guard of the army sent against Aleppo by Malik-S̲h̲āh in 479 (1089) and walked at the head of the procession on the occasion of the marriage of Malik-S̲h̲āh’s daughter with the Caliph in 480 (1087), He took the side of Barkiyārūḳ in his struggle with his uncle …

= “skirmisher”, “scout” (from āḳin “incursion”, “razzia”, “raid of cavalry”, from the root āḳ-maḳ = “flow”, “gush”.) At the beginning of the Ottoman conquests the āḳind̲j̲i, in the van of the regular troops of the invading army, struck Oriental Europe with terror by the rapidity of their movements; they received neither fiefs nor pay, but lived on the booty they captured from the enemy. They appear for the first time in the early years of ʿOt̲h̲mān’s dominion, first in Asia Minor, notably in a combat, which …

(Turkish pronunciation: Diyār-Bekir), formerly the name of a province, at the present day the name of the town of Āmid, the ancient Ainida, called Ḳara-Āmid by the Turks on account of the black colour of its walls and buildings of basalt. It is the capital of the province of the same name and lies on the left bank of the Tigris, at a height of 2070 feet above sea-level; below it the river becomes navigable for the rafts made of inflated skins ( kelek) which descend as far as Bag̲h̲dād. The population is 35,000 of whom 20,142 are Muslims (4130 Kurds) and 13,560 Christians. Its …

, a town in Ḵh̲ūzistān, founded by the Sāsānid S̲h̲āpūr I. (whence the name wandēw S̲h̲āpūr “conquered by S̲h̲āpūr”, cf. Nöldeke, Geschichte der Perser etc., p. 41, note 2), who settled it with Greek prisoners. It is the town known as Bēth-Lāpāt in Syriac, corrupted to Bēl-Ābād̲h̲, now almost unrecognisable in the forms nīlāb and nīlāṭ; the site is marked at the present days by the ruins of S̲h̲āhābād (cf. Rawlinson in the Journ. of the Royal Geogr. Soc., ix. 72; de Bode, Travels in Luristan, ii. 167). The town was taken by the Muslims in the caliphate of ʿOmar by Mūsā al-As̲h̲ʿ…

(t.), “servant of the interior” (i. e. of the palace) was the name given in Turkey to the pages in the Sulṭān’s service. They were Christian children who had either been taken in war or given as tribute in Europe; Asia was free from this levy. The most beautiful and best developed were chosen and those who seemed to be best endowed and to possess the best character. Their names, ages, and country of origin were noted and then they were converted to Islām and circumcised. They received a strict t…

, (Amīr) b. ʿAlāʾ al-Dawla Bak̲h̲tīs̲h̲āh, a Persian man of letters, a descendant of a family of Isfarāʾīn in Ḵh̲orāsān which held certain estates there; his father was one of the most favoured courtiers of S̲h̲āh Ruk̲h̲, son of Tīmūr; he himself took part in the battle between Sulṭān Maḥmūd and Abu ’l-G̲h̲āzī Sulṭān Ḥusain, near Andak̲h̲ūd. He was about fifty years of age when he began to write his Tad̲h̲kirat al-S̲h̲uʿarā, which was completed in 892 (1487). The eldest son of Fatḥ-ʿAlī S̲h̲āh was also called Dawlat-S̲h̲āh; he was born at Nawā on the 7th Rabīʿ II. 1203 (6th Jan. 1789), was fo…

, Persian plural from d̲j̲ān-bāz, “one who risks his life” (in Turkish: rope-dancer, juggler, circus-rider; thence “horse-dealer”, “trickster”) ¶ the name given to a body of soldiers of fortune, “daredevils”, quartered on the coasts of Asia Minor; they were disbanded by Sulṭān Selīm II. (Cl. Huart) Bibliography M. d’Ohsson, Tableau, vii. 309 Barbier de Meynard, Dictionnaire Turc, s. v.

, usually written Bezistān (from the Arabic bezz, “silk, linen” and more particularly “cotton”) the central part of a bazaar, a stone building which can be closed by iron doors, where the more valuable wares are sold. In Ḳōniya it used to be called bezzāziya “place of the clothmercers” (Huart, Epigraphie, n°. 38); in Constantinople the corrupt form bedestān was used. The latter was built by Sulṭān Meḥmed II. The corresponding Arabic word is ḳaisārīya (or ḳaiṣārīya). (Cl. Huart) Bibliography Barbier de Meynard, Dictionnaire turc-français, i. 289 Galland, Journal, ed. Schefer, i. 24 Jouan…

, a Persian word of uncertain etymology, an honorific title applied to personages of a town, not of military rank, bourgeois. It was generally borne by ministers of sovereigns who were chosen from among the learned. It was later used to designate eunuchs. It is found as early as the beginning of the vith (xiith) century in a verse by the poet Anwarī. The derivative substantive k̲h̲wād̲j̲agī in the sense of “merchant”, “tradesman” is found in Meninski and the Sicilian documents published by Michele Amari (p. 212, 2). It passed into Arabic in the forms k̲h̲uwād̲j̲ā and k̲h̲uwād̲j̲a, the modern k…

, a Persian title for descendants of the Imāms and an abbreviated designation also for their graves. This name was also given to the Persian scholar, preacher, and poet, Abu ’l-Maḥāsin al-Waʿiẓ, born in S̲h̲urg̲h̲ near Buk̲h̲ārā (Schefer, Chrestom. Persane, i. p. 24 of the notes]. (Cl. Huart) Bibliography Mme J. Dieulafoy, La Perse, p. 717 A Suse, p. 357 Flandin et Coste, Voyage en Perse, Vol. vi., Perse moderne, Pl. ix., x. xv. (Ḳazwīn, xix. (Sulairaānīye), xxxvii. Kās̲h̲ān), lxiiith (Ḳūmis̲h̲ah).

, ʿAlī Yazdī, Persian poet and historian, bom at Yazd, was the companion of S̲h̲āh Ruk̲h̲ and more particularly of his son, Mīrzā Ibrāhīm Sulṭān (d. 838 = 1434/1435). In 846(1442) Mīrzā Sulṭān Muḥammad, appointed governor of ʿIrāḳ ʿAd̲j̲amī, summoned him to Ḳumm and treated him as one of his councillors. This prince having rebelled in 850 (1446—1447), S̲h̲araf al-Dīn, suspected of being involved in the plot, was saved from execution, ordered by S̲h̲āh Ruk̲h̲, through the intervention of Mīrzā ʿAbd al-Laṭīf, son of Ulug̲h̲ Beg, who brought ¶ him to Samarḳand. Sulṭān Muḥammad, who be…

(a.), any partition which separates two things; whence in medicine the diaphragm (Abu ʿAbd Allāh al-Ḵh̲wārizmī, Mafātīḥ al-ʿUlūm, p. 156; P. de Koning, Trois Traités d’’Anatomic, p. 350, 816). — In the Ḳurʿān it has the sense of “curtain, veil”, e. g. one should speak with women from behind a curtain (Sūra xxxiii. 53); in the next world the elect and the damned will be separated by a curtain (vii. 44); the term here seems to be synonymous with al-aʿrāf and was therefore early explained as “wall” (Ṭabarī, Tafsīr, viii. 126; Baiḍāwī, ii. 326) in allusion to Ḳurʾān ¶ lvii. 13. The unbelievers s…

, Kamāl al-Dīn, the most famous of Persian miniature painters, born in Herāt, a pupil of Pīr Saiyid Aḥmad of Tabrīz and favourite of the Tīmūrid Ḥusain-i Bāiḳarā and the Ṣafawī S̲h̲āh Ismāʿīl. Bāber ( Memoirs, i. 412) praises his delicate talent but criticises him for making the lines of the chin too thick on beardless faces. He was still alive when Ḵh̲ōndemīr completed his Ḥabīb al-Siyar (930= 1524). Among the manuscripts illustrated by him may be mentioned a Tīmūr-Nāmah written by Sulṭān ʿAlī Mas̲h̲hadī, which belonged to the library of the Great Mog̲h̲ul Humāyūn, when i…

(Edremīd, the ancient Adramyttium), a town in Asia Minor, capital of a ḳaza in the province of Ḵh̲udāwendigiār (Brusa), four kilometres (about 2½ miles) distant from the ¶ sea; 6200 inhab., of whom 4960 Mussulmans and 1240 Orthodox Greeks; preparation of olive oil and wine; thermal sulpho-ferrugineous springs in the village of Frenk. Commerce is carried on through the harbor of Akčei, 10 kilometres (a little more than 6 miles) distant from the town, with which it is connected by an alley of gigantic olive trees. — The ḳaz…

(a.), “dust”, an exceedingly fine kind of writing, the lines of which are finer than hairs and which requires to be read with the aid of a glass. It may be used in any of the various calligraphies. — It is also the name of a kind of decimal figures, which are very similar to the Hindu-Arabic numerals. (Cl. Huart) Bibliography Cl. Huart, Calligraphes et Miniaturistes, p. 53 S. de Sacy, Grammaire Arabe 2, i. 91 and Pl. viii.

, an Osmanli-Turkish word which denotes the two great Musulman festivals: Küčük-bairam “the little festival”, also called S̲h̲ekerbairam “feast of sweets” on account of the custom of making presents of sweetmeats then, is the festival on the breaking of the fast ( ʿīd al-fiṭr) which lasts three days. The böyük-bairam, “the great festival”, usually called ḳurbān-bairam, “feast of the sacrifice”, is the ʿīd al-aḍḥā which lasts four days. A rikiāb-i humāyūn, “official reception”, is held at the Imperial Palace on each of these two festivals. (Cl. Huart)

, a Persian stylist, son of Mathurādās Kanbū of Multān; was for many years muns̲h̲ī (secretary) to Nawwāb lʿtibār-Ḵh̲ān, a eunuch in the service of the Mog̲h̲ul - emperor Ḏj̲ahāngīr and was then appointed ṣubadār (governor of Akbarābād (Agra) (1031 = 1622). He is the author of a collection of letters ( ins̲h̲āʾ), divided into seven sections, which bears his name and contains model letters as well as official documents (ed. with English transl. by Francis Balfour, Calcutta 1781, 21804, reprinted 1831; lith. Lahore 1869). The work was used by the English authorities as a mod…

, Othman poet and man of letters, was the son of Saiyid Muḥammad, a prince of the Mag̲h̲rib who had fled to Constantinople in the reign of Sulṭān Aḥmad I, and had married the daughter of Muḥammad Pas̲h̲a, brother of the Grand Vizier Ḵh̲alīl Pas̲h̲a. He was brought up by the latter, who had entrusted his education to S̲h̲aik̲h̲ Mahmūd of Scutari, accompanied him as tad̲h̲kirèd̲j̲i (“editor”) when during his second vizierate he was given the command of the troops in the Persian campaign, was appointed raʾīs al-kuttāb in 1037 (1627/28) in place of Muḥammad Efendi who had just died an…

(p.), “land of roses, rose-garden, the name of a celebrated didactic work, a mixture of prose and verse, by the Persian poet Saʿdī of S̲h̲īrāz, consisting of a preface, eight chapters (the lives and doings of kings, manners and customs of the derwīs̲h̲es, frugality, advantages of silence,, love and youth, infirmity and old age, importance of education and rules of conduct) and an epilogue. A number of anecdotes interwoven give us information on the personal experiences of the poet. The Gulistān was completed in 656 (1258), one year after the Bostān; it bears a dedication to the Atābe…

al-Marzbān b. Sulṭān al-Dawla, a Būyide, had been appointed by his father as governor of al-Ahwāz in 412 (1021). On the death of the latter (415 = 1024) he was called to S̲h̲īrāz to succeed him, but he was forestalled by his paternal uncle Abu ’l-Fawāris b. Bahāʾ al-Dawla, governor of Kirmān, with the help of the Turkish guard, which preferred him. Abū Kālīd̲j̲ār gathered some troops, who defeated his uncle’s army and he entered S̲h̲īrāz, but he could not hold his own there because of the hostility…

(p. bō-stān, “place of perfumes”), properly a “garden of sweet-smelling flowers”, also means “orchard”. As a loanword it appears in Turkish with the meaning of “vegetable-garden”, in which melons, water-melons and vegetables are grown; in Arabic (plur. basātīn) its meaning varies in different districts; in Bairūt, for example, bostān means a piece of ground (Cuche) planted with mulberry trees and surrounded by a hedge, in Algeria it means also “cypress” (Beaussier). — Bostān is also the title of a Persian didactic poem by Saʿdī, English translation by Forbes Falconer ( Selections, Lo…

(Abulustain) is the capital of a ḳaza in the sand̲j̲aḳ of Marʿas̲h̲ (wilāyet of Aleppo), on the river Ḏj̲aiḥān (Pyramus) at the foot of the Kurd Dāg̲h̲, at an elevation of 3600 ft. It numbers 6500 inhabitants, of whom 3546 are Moslems and 2954 Christians. The town is surrounded by woods and gardens, and a great many ruins of castles from the time of the little-Armenian kings are scattered about the environs. There are 10 mosques and 1085 houses. The people earn a livelihood mainly by agriculture…

, a Persian historian, properly Waṣṣāf al-Ḥaḍrat “panegyrist of the court”, the name by which S̲h̲araf al-Dīn ʿAbd Allāh b. Faḍl Allāh of S̲h̲īrāz is known. Employed as a taxcollector under the Mongols, he became the protégé of the minister and historian Ras̲h̲īd al-Dīn, who presented him to Ūld̲j̲āitū (712 = 1312), when the Īlk̲h̲ān was in Sulṭānīya. His history Taʾrīk̲h̲-i Waṣṣāf is the continuation of the Taʾrīk̲h̲-i Ḏj̲ahān-gus̲h̲ā of ʿAṭā Malik Ḏj̲uwainī; it is called Tad̲j̲ziyat al-Amṣār wa-Tazd̲j̲iyat al-Aʿṣār “division of the towns and propulsion of the centuries” …

(Hebr. S̲h̲ēt̲h̲), Seth, the third son of Adam and Eve ( Gen., iv. 25, 26 and v. 3—8) was born when his father was 130 years of age, five years after the murder of Abel. When Adam died, he made him his heir and executor of his will. He taught him the hours of the day and of the night, told him of the Flood to come and taught him to worship the divinity in retirement at each hour of the day. It is to him that we trace the genealogy of mankind, since Abel did not leave any heirs and Cain’s heirs were lost in the Flood. It is said that he lived at Mecca performing the rites of p…

(the ancient Cucusus), a village in Turkey in Asia, the capital of a nāḥiya of the ḳaẓā of Andrln in the sand̲j̲aḳ of Marʿas̲h̲ in the province of Aleppo. It lies in a low, swampy plain, surrounded by argilaceous hills and consists only of huts built of tree-trurks. On the heights there still stand the ruins of several Armenian castles; the land around is almost entirely desert St. Chrysostom spent some time here in ¶ 404 a. d. during his exile. During the first Crusade the Franks spent three days in Göksün (Cocson, Cosor), as they found ample supplies here. (Cl. Huart) Bibliography Ch. Texier, Asi…

, Ottoman general of Sultan Sulaimān’s time, took part in the wars against Hungary as Beilerbei of Rumelia. He took the town of Sabacz by storm (2 S̲h̲aʿbān 927 = 8 July 1521), ¶ commanded a division of the army which was charged with the siege of Rhodos, was afterwards appointed commander-in-chief, reduced the besieged to ultimate extremity and obliged them to capitulate (2 Ṣafar 929 = 21 Dec. 1522). Being of a violent and ambitious character he had hoped to be appointed Grand Vizier; but when he did not get this post he asked…

, “a large assemblage of stagnant water, lake or pond”, also the name of two nāḥiyas in Asiatic Turkey of which the first is in the Ḳaẓā of Köprü (sand̲j̲aḳ of Amāsiya, wilāyet of Sīwās) and contains 43 villages, and the second attached to the capital of the wilāyet of Ḳastamūnī and including 61 villages. (Cl. Huart) Bibliography Sālnāme 1325, p. 820, 833.

, Turkish name for the Abazes [see abk̲h̲āz], given as a surname to many persons in Ottoman history who descended from those people. 1. Ābāza Pas̲h̲a, taken prisoner at the defeat of the rebel Ḏj̲anbulād, whose treasurer he was, was brought before Murād-Pas̲h̲a and only had his life spared through the intercession of Ḵh̲alīl, agha of the Janizaries, who, having become ḳapūdān-pas̲h̲a, gave him the command of a galley, and conferred upon him the government of Marʿas̲h̲ when he was promoted to the dignity of grand vizier. Later he became governor of Erzerūm…

(from the Arabic firār “flight”) (T.) “deserter”. This word has been recently applied by the partisans of the government to Young ¶ Turks who have taken refuge abroad to escape the vigilance of the police. (Cl. Huart)

, an Arabic word meaning originally archer, then arquebusier, finally, like the French archer, came to mean military police. The form ḳawwāṣ (with ṣād) is found in the 1001 Nights (Dozy, Suppl.). The word is applied in the Levant specially to the military police, called in French cawas or sometimes janissaires (because before the abolition of the latter, they were chosen from their ranks), detached to act as guards to embassies and consulates. They go in front of the head of the embassy or consulate when he goes into the town, whether officiall…