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[German version] The title Great King in the ancient Oriental tradition (from the 2nd millennium BC to the Achaemenids [1]) was adopted by Hellenistic rulers as μέγας βασιλεύς; megas basileûs (and continued as rex magnus [2. 253]). It is attested for the Seleucids  Antiochus [5] III, who did not use it on coins and in royal letters, but tolerated (or even promoted) its use elsewhere [3. 75-77],  Antiochus [9] VII (Iust. 38,10,6), Ptolemy III (OGIS I 54) and IV [5. 71-74], and later also for other Hellenistic kings and petty prin…

[German version] (Middle Persian Kerdīr or Kirdīr). The name of a Sassanid religious-political official and dignitary of the 3rd cent. AD. In his four inscriptions [1. KKZ, KNRm, KNRb, KSM], originating from the times of King Vahrām II (276-293), K. describes his career from a simple hērbed (teacher priest) under Šābuhr I to mōbad and dādvar (judge) of the entire kingdom. Further, he praises his commitment to Zoroastrianism and explains his visions. The significant role attributed to him in the arrest of the Mani under Vahrām I is in fact merely se…

(Ὀξάθρης/ Oxáthrēs). [German version] [1] Youngest son of Darius [2] II and Parysatis Youngest son of Darius [2] II and Parysatis (Plut. Artoxerxes 1,5). Wiesehöfer, Josef (Kiel) [German version] [2] Son of Abulites, commander at Gaugamela Son of Abulites, commander of his father's troops at Gaugamela; he subjugated himself to Alexander [4] the Great, but he (now governor of Paraetacene) was executed in Susa in 324 because he failed to provide assistance to the Greek army marching through the Gedrosian desert (Arr. Anab. 3,8,5; …

[German version] (Φραταφέρνης/ Phrataphérnēs). Satrap of the territories of Parthia and Hyrcania under Darius [3] III (Arr. Anab. 3,23,4); he commanded the Parthians, Hyrcanians and Topeirians in the battle of Gaugamela in 331 BC ( ibidem 3,8,4). After the death of Darius he was reinstated in his old post by Alexander[4] the Great ( ibidem 3,28,2; 5,20,7; Curt. 8,3,17) and became one of the most loyal followers of the Macedonian. He took part in the suppression of the rebellion in Areia [1] ( ibidem 3,28,2; 4,18,1), arrested the insurgent Autophradates [2] (ibidem 4,18,2; Curt. 8,3,17…

[German version] I. Object of Research and Method In pre-industrial societies, the age of husband and wife at first marriage - alongside mortality and the menopause - determined the time-span available for procreation. An extension of this period usually caused a proportional rise in fertility. At the same time, the age of the husband influenced the size of the generation gap and the social and legal relations within the oíkos and familia. Ancient historians have developed various methodological approaches to establish this age, which differ in the choice of the so…

(Παρύσατις; Parysatis, Babylonian Purušātu). [German version] [1] Daughter of Artaxerxes [1] I and the Babylonian Andia Daughter of Artaxerxes [1] I and the Babylonian Andia; wife of her half-brother Darius [2] II, mother of Artaxerxes [2] II and Cyrus [3] the Younger (Ctesias FGrH 688 F 15; Plut. Artoxerxes 2,4) among other children. According to Greek tradition, she is said to have had a great influence on Darius (Ctesias ibid.; Plut. Artoxerxes 2,2), preferred Cyrus (Xen. An. 1,1,3; Ctesias FGrH 688 F 17), a…

[German version] ( Nēv Šābuhr). City founded by Šābuhr I (Sapor) (Ḥamza Iṣfah, Šahristānihā-i Ērān; Ṭabarī: Šābuhr II), capital of the Sāssānid province of Abaršahr in Westḫorāsān (Iran). Under Yazdgird II (5th cent. AD) it was for a time the most important royal residence of the Sāssānids (battles against the Hephthalites), and the city, in whose vicinity was also an important fire sanctuary, remained a flourishing metropolis until the Mongol Conquest of the 13th cent. Wiesehöfer, Josef (Kiel)

[German version] Border territory of Media, opposite Parthyene east of the Caspian Gates (the modern territory of Dāmghān). Although it had already been lost for a period to the Seleucids before the eastern campaign ( anábasis) of  Antiochus [5] III, it did not finally fall to the Parthians (along with its central town of  Hecatompylus) until the 2nd cent. BC (cf. Str. 11,9,1). In the late Sassanid period the province ( šahr) Kōmiš, which incidentally was probably never a Christian diocese [1], separated the provinces of Gurgān and Ray. Wiesehöfer, Josef (Kiel) Bibliography 1 R. Gysel…

[German version] Fertile and densely settled area in Sogdiana, mentioned only in Curt. 8,2,14 as "bordering Scythia." The location and region are today identified with Erkurgan and its surrounding area near Karshi in the plain of the River Qashqadaryo in Uzbekistan. At the approach of Alexander [4]  the Great in the winter of 329/8 BC the inhabitants of X. expelled the Bactrians (Bactria) that had defected from the Macedonians and sought refuge in their land. Wiesehöfer, Josef (Kiel) Bibliography 1 F. Grenet, Zoroastre au Badakhshân, in: Studia Iranica 31, 2002, 193-214 2 C. Rapin, …

[German version] This item can be found on the following maps: Xenophon | Alexander Large village (κώμη μεγάλη, probably modern Tall Gōmil near Ǧabal Maqlūb, 35 km north-east of Mosul) on the river Bumelos in northern Mesopotamia (Arr. Anab. 6,11,6), near which (cf. Arr. Anab. 3,8,7) the battle between  Alexander [4] the Great and  Darius [3] III took place on 1 October 331 (Arr. Anab. 3,11-15; Curt. 4,13,26-16; Plut. Alexander 31-33; Diod. Sic. 17,56-61; Iust. 11,14). After Alexander stalled a flanking manoe…

[German version] Region in north-western Iran, in Neo-Assyrian records referred to as KUR Ma-da-a-a. The borders of M. changed in the course of history and cannot be defined exactly in geographical terms; its political centre was Ecbatana. In historical times, the ethnolinguistic classification of M.'s predominant inhabitants was Iranian ( Medes). More or less neglected by classical Greek records, the geography of M. gained importance in the Western mind from the Alexandrian period. Polybius praised the stra…

[German version] (Ὀροίτης; Oroítēs). Persian governor in Sardeis who (according to Hdt. 3,120ff.) had Polycrates [1] enticed from Samos to Magnesia and crucified. When O. refused to assist Darius [1] I after the death of Cambyses [2], Darius had him disposed of (according to Herodotus, through a command from the royal envoy Bagaeus to the O.'s bodyguard). From the entourage of O., the physician Democedes came to the Persian court. Wiesehöfer, Josef (Kiel) Bibliography P. Briant, Histoire de l'Empire perse: de Cyrus à Alexandre, 1996, s.v. Oroites

(Ὀτάνης, altpersisch Utāna). [English version] [1] Sohn des Θuxra Sohn des Θuxra [2. DB IV 83], einer der Helfer Dareios' [1] I. bei der Ermordung des Gaumāta (Smerdis). Nach Hdt. 3,68-70, der als O.' Vater Pharnaspes nennt, war O. gar der Anstifter des Komplotts. Durch seine Schwester Kassandane (Hdt. 2,1; 3,2) war O. Schwager des Kyros [2] (II.), durch seine Tochter Phaidyme Schwiegervater von Kambyses II., Smerdis und Dareios (Hdt. 3,68). Seine bed. Stellung mag auch in den von Dareios gewährten Privi…

[English version] Indischer Name der Könige der v.a. durch ihre Mz. bekannten sog. indoparthischen Dyn., als deren Begründer Gondophares gilt, der die Herrschaft der Shaka in Arachosien (Arachosia) und schließlich wohl auch in Gandhara (Gandaritis) beendete. Die Inschr. von Taḫt-i Bahī aus dem 26. Jahr dieses Königs fixiert seine Herrschaft recht genau auf 20 bis nach 46 n.Chr. Dazu paßt die Nachricht, daß der Apostel Thomas auf seiner Reise nach Indien mit Gondophares zusammengetroffen sein soll …

[English version] (Μεγάπανος). Nach Hdt. 7,62 Befehlshaber der Hyrkanier auf dem Griechenlandzug des Xerxes, später angeblich Statthalter von Babylon, vielleicht mit dem Bakabana der PFT [1. 672] identisch. Ein Ba-ga-a-pa- erscheint zwar in babylon. Texten als Satrap von Babylonien und Ebir Nāri oder Gouverneur von Babylon, allerdings bereits für das Jahr 503 v.Chr. Wiesehöfer, Josef (Kiel) Bibliography 1 R.T. Hallock, Persepolis Fortification Tablets [PFT], 1969 2 A. Kuhrt, Babylonia from Cyrus to Xerxes, in: CAH2, Bd. 4, 1988, 131, 136.

[English version] (Παραιτακηνή; Bewohner: Παρητακηνοί, u.a. Hdt. 1,101 bzw. Παραιτάκαι, Arr. an. 3,19,2). Gebirgslandschaft in Westiran, im Norden und Osten von Media, Areia [1] und Karmania, im SW von Susiana umschlossen. Von Strab. werden die Paraitakēnoí als räuberisches Bergvolk beschrieben (15,3,12). Wiesehöfer, Josef (Kiel)

[English version] (Μαζαῖος). Vornehmer, am achäm. Hofe hoch angesehener Perser (Curt. 5,1,18; Plut. Alexander 39), Vater von Antibelos, Artiboles und Hydarnes. Unter Artaxerxes [3] III. Satrap von Kilikien und pers. Befehlshaber im Kampf gegen die aufständischen Phoiniker (Diod. 16,42,1f.), verwaltete M. unter Dareios [3] III. Koile Syria und “Syrien zwischen den Strömen”. Er räumte 331 v.Chr. seine Stellung bei Thapsakos und ermöglichte Alexandros [4] d.Gr. damit den Übergang ü…

[English version] (Ἄπαρνοι/Πάρνοι, Variante Πάρνοι/Σπαρνοι: Strab. 11,7,1; lat. Aparni/Parni: etym. ungeklärt). Teil-“Stamm” der Daher [1] - neben den Xánthioi/ Xantheíoi und Píssuroi (Strab. 11,8,2; vgl. 11,9,3) -, der im 3. Jh.v.Chr. die Steppe des sw Turkmenistan besetzte (Strab. 11,8,2f.; Iust. 41,1,10) und von dort unter seinem Anführer Arsakes [1] I. nach 250 v.Chr. in Parthia einfiel. Die P. sprachen urspr. einen ostmitteliranischen Dialekt (Parnisch), der nur aus indirekter Überl. erschlossen werden kann; di…

[English version] A. Begrifflichkeit und Einstellung zum Kind Zahlreiche ant. Bezeichnungen für das Kind (Lit., Rechtssprache etc.) unterscheiden Stadien der Kindheit (βρέφος/ bréphos, παιδίον/ paidíon, παῖς/ pais; lat. infans, puer), betonen die unterschiedliche Bedeutung des Kindes für beide Elternteile ( pais/ téknon) oder die Schuld- und Haftungsunfähigkeit von Kindern ( infans, impuber); manche Begriffe besitzen dabei ein breites Bedeutungsspektrum [6. 12-22]. In der für Griechenland wie Rom zu beobachtenden Dichotomie von Kindheit und Erwachsensein…

[English version] Nach Šīrīn (Schirin), der christl. Gemahlin des Sāsāniden Ḫusrau II. (Chosroes [6]; 591-628), benannter Platz in der iranischen Prov. Īlām nahe der irakischen Grenze, in islam. Zeit wichtiger Ort an der Handels- und Pilgerstraße von Hamadān nach Baghdad. Am östl. Stadtrand befinden sich ein großes Feuerheiligtum (?) (Çahār Tāq) und nördl. davon, auf einer 8 m hohen Terrasse, eine dem Ḫusrau II. zugeschriebene Palastanlage (Imārat-e Ḫusrau) von 370 × 190 m Größe. Die gesamte Anlage hat man sich in der Ant. in einer Parklandschaft ( parádeisos ) zu denken. Wieseh…