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, 26th letter of the Arabic alphabet, transcribed h; numerical value: 5, as in the Syriac (and Canaanite) alphabet [see abd̲j̲ad ]. It continues h from common Semitic. Definition: unvoiced glottal spirant; according to the Arab grammatical tradition: rik̲h̲wa mahmūsa ; as regards the mak̲h̲rad̲j̲: aḳṣā ’l-ḥalḳ “the farthest part of the throat” (al-Zamak̲h̲s̲h̲arī, Mufaṣṣal2 , § 732). A voiced h can be found after a voiced phoneme but it is not a distinctive characteristic (see J. Cantineau, Cours , 75). Pause can develop a h to support the short final vowel of a word when it is …

, an ancient town on the scarp of the Vindhyas overlooking the Narbadā valley, and since 1956 the headquarters of Dhār district, Madhya Pradesh, India. It stood on the main routes from Dihlī to the Dakhan and to Gud̲j̲arāt. From the 3rd/9th to the end of the 7th/13th centuries it was a capital of the Paramāras who ruled Mālwā first as Rās̲h̲t́rakūt́a feudatories and then as independent monarchs. The most powerful of these, Vākpati II (or Muñd̲j̲a) and Bhod̲j̲adeva I, receive mention in many Musl…

, Naṣīr al-Dīn , the founder of a short-lived dynasty ruling in Kālpī [ q.v.] in the first half of the 9th/15th century. He was the son of Malikzāda Fīrūz b. Tād̲j̲ al-Dīn Turk, the wazīr of G̲h̲iyāt̲h̲ al-Dīn Tug̲h̲luḳ II, who was killed with his sovereign in Dihlī in 791/1389; after that event he fled to Kālpī, his iḳṭāʿ , gave it the honorific name of Muḥammadābād, and “aspired to independence” ( dam az istiḳlāl mīzad ). This was not difficult to attain in the disrupted conditions of the Dihlī sultanate after Tīmūr’s sack and withdrawal, and Maḥm…

, called Sulṭān Dāniyāl in the histories, the youngest and favourite son of the Mug̲h̲al emperor Akbar, born Ad̲j̲mēr 2 D̲j̲umāda I 979/22 September 1571. In 1008/1599 he was appointed military governor of the Deccan, and after his conquest of the city of Aḥmadnagar (1009/1601) he was honoured by Akbar and given the province of K̲h̲āndēs̲h̲, fancifully named Dāndēs̲h̲ after him. He is described as well-built, good-looking, fond of horses, and skilful in the composition of Hindūstānī poems. He figures in Abu ’l-Faḍl’s lists of the grandees of the empire ( Āʾīn-i Akbarī …

(Sanskrit Kanaakubd̲j̲a; known to the Arabic geographers as Ḳannawd̲j̲, Ḳinnawd̲j̲, the latter form used also in Ḥudūd al-ʿĀlam ), town in Farruk̲h̲ābād district, Uttar Prades̲h̲, India, 27°3’ N., 79°56’ E., formerly also the surrounding district. It has been identified, not beyond question, with Ptolemy’s Κάναγορα/Κάναγοζα; it is certainly referred to in the travels of Fa-Hsien (A.D. 405) as a city under the Guptas, and as a capital and great Buddhist centre at the time of Hsüan Tsʾang’s travels, circa A.D. 641, when under the great Harṣavardhana it had become the chief …

, d. 740/1339, first Sultan of Madura [ q.v.]. A native of Kaythal in the Pand̲j̲āb, he is known from a well-inscription (cf. B. D. Verma, in Epigraphia Indica , Arabic and Persian Supplement , 1955-6, 109 ff.) to have been nāʾib-i iḳṭāʿ in the province of Maʿbar [ q.v.] in 725/ 1324; later he was appointed governor by Muḥammad b. Tug̲h̲luḳ (or, according to ʿIṣāmī, Futūḥ al-Salāṭīn , 449, was kotwāl [ q.v.] at Madura and usurped the government), but shortly after This, in 735/1335, he proclaimed his independence under the title of D̲j̲alāl al-(Dunyā wa ’l)-Dīn Aḥsan…

A district in Gud̲j̲arāt [ q.v.] in the present Bombay State, India, of about 1450 sq.m. and with a population of some 300,000; the Islamic population was about 20% of the total prior to partition in 1947, but much of this has since moved to Sind in Pakistān. The principal class of Muslims was Bohrā [see bohorās ]. Bharoč is also the name of the principal town of that district, Lat. 21°42′N., Long. 73° 2′E. It is first known as a town within the Mawrya dominions, and later (c. 150 A.D.) to have been in the hands of Parthian Sāhas; from the Middle Indian form bharugaccha- of the Sanskrit bhṛgukṣetra- …

, the third of the salāṭīn al-s̲h̲arḳ , the name given to the rulers of the state of D̲j̲awnpur [ q.v.], regnabat 804-44/1402-40. He and his elder brother Mubārak S̲h̲āh ‘Ḳaranful’, whom he succeeded on the D̲j̲awnpur throne, were the adopted sons of the eunuch Malik Sarwar, the first sultan, and they are generally supposed to have been Ḥabs̲h̲īs [ q.v.]. Ibrāhīm succeeded to a kingdom of considerable extent, from Koyl (later ʿAlīgaŕh) and It́āwā [ q.v.] in the west to Bihār and Tirhut [ qq.v.] in the east, an area of about the size of Austria. It was Ibrāhīm who did most to mak…

, a generally imprecisely defined region of India to the south and south-west of Dihlī, the broken country around Alwar, Tid̲j̲ārā, Bharatpur, Dīg, Rēwāŕī, Mathurā and Gurgāʾōn, “land of the Mēʾō” [ q.v.], robbers, marauders and cattle thieves. Punitive excursions under Iltutmis̲h̲, ca. 620/1223, and Balban as nāʾib of Nāṣir al-Dīn Maḥmūd in 646/1249 and 658/1260, had only a temporary effect, and Mēwāt was not effectively pacified and controlled until Balban’s first regnal year as sultan, 665/1267 (full account in Ḍiyāʾ al-Dīn Baranī, Taʾrīk̲h̲-i Fīrūz S̲h̲āhī …

(a), kitchen, cookhouse, a noun of place, defined by lexicographers as “the cook’s house” ( bayt al-ṭabbāk̲h̲ ) from the verbal root meaning “the cooking of flesh meat”. The root ṭ-b-k̲h̲ is common to the Semitic family. Already in Akkadian, OT Hebrew, Syriac, Ethiopie and post-Biblical Hebrew we find the further, related connotation of “slaughtering” in addition to that of “cooking”. Undoubtedly, the mediaeval domestic maṭbak̲h̲ combined both these functions. By extension of the root meaning, the maṭbak̲h̲ was the place where every conceivable kind of food, including fl…

, the name now commonly given to the ruins of the capital city of the Vid̲j̲ayanagara [ q.v.] empire, on the right bank of the Tungabhadrā river 60 km. north-west of Bellary. The name seems to be derived from the prominent temple to Pampāpati (Kannad́a h < Old Kann. p) in the bāzār area. The Vid̲j̲ayanagara empire is of importance for the Muslim world not only as an active Hindū power which defied its Muslim neighbours for over two centuries, but also for the evidence it offers of the progressive synthesis of certain aspects of Hindū and Muslim cul…

, Pačpiriyā , followers of the Five Saints, Urdu pānč pīr , especially in northern and eastern India, whose myths and legends (there is no real historicity or hagiology about them) are attached to a primitive form of shrine worship with as many Hindū as Muslim adherents (Kipling in Kim , ch. 4, speaks of the “wayside shrines—sometimes Hindu, sometimes Mussulman—which the low caste of both creeds share with beautiful impartiality”. For “caste” among the lower grades of Muslim society see hind. ii, Ethnography). They have no formal organisation, and belong to the general north…

, a district in south-central India (the ‘Deccan’, [ q.v.]), and the headquarters town of that district, lat. 17° 55ʹ N., long. 77° 32ʹ E., population over 15,000, 82 miles north-west of Ḥaydarābād from which it is easily accessible by road and rail. The identification of Bīdar with the ancient Vidarbha (Briggs’s Ferishta , ii, 411) is now discounted, cf. G. Yazdani, Bidar : its history and monuments, Oxford 1947, 3. Bīdar was included in the Čālukya kingdom of Kalyāń, 4th-6th/10th-12th centuries, but was in the hands of the Kākatīyās of Warangal when conquered…

, modern spelling Nagaur, Nagor, a town and district in the division of Jodhpur in the Rajasthan state of the Indian Union, formerly within the princely state of Jodhpur in British India; the town lies in lat. 27° 12′ N. and long. 73° 48′ E. at 75 miles/120 km. to the northeast of Jodhpur [see d̲j̲ōdhpur ], and in 1971 had a population of 36,433. The walled town is said to have derived its name from its traditional founders, the Nāga Rād̲j̲puts. In the later 12th century it was controlled by the Čawhān (Čahamāna) ruler of Dihlī Pṛithvīrād̲j̲a III, then by the G̲h̲ūrid Muʿizz al-Dīn Muḥammad [see g̲h̲…

b. ʿAlī s̲h̲arīf al-Ḳurays̲h̲ī al-Nāgōrī , whose dates of birth and death are unknown, wrote his Ḳānūn-i Islām at the instigation of Dr. Herklots some time before 1832. He is said to have been “a man of low origin and of no account in ¶ his own country”, born at Uppuēlūru (Ellore) in Kistna District, Madras, and was employed as a muns̲h̲ī in the service of the Madras government. He was an orthodox Sunnī, yet tolerant towards the S̲h̲īʿas, who had considerable influence in south India in his time, learned yet objective in his approach…

1. — History. The city of Dihlī, situated on the west bank of the river D̲j̲amnā [ q.v.] and now spread out between 28° 30′ and 28° 44′ N. and 77° 5′ and 77° 15′ E., was the capital of the earliest Muslim rulers of India from 608/1211 (see dihlī sultanate ), and remained the capital of the northern dynasties (with occasional exceptions: Dawlatābād, Agra, and Lahore (Lāhawr), [ qq.v.], were the centres favoured by some rulers) until the deposition of Bahādur S̲h̲āh in 1858; from 1911 it became the capital of British India, and after 1947 of Independent India. The usual Romanized form of the nam…

, a small town about 40 km. east of Āt́ak, Pākistān, 33° 48′ N., 72° 44′ E., which forms a part of the ruins around the ancient Taxila. It is known as the site of a spring which has attracted legends of sanctity from Buddhist, Hindū, Muslim and Sikh sources, and in its form of the sacred tank ¶ of the Serpent King Ēlāpatra was described by the Chinese pilgrim Hiuen Tsang in the 7th century A.D. It is now known by Muslims as the spring of Bābā Walī, and by the Sikhs as that of Pand̲j̲ā Ṣāḥib (Pand̲j̲ābī pand̲j̲ā ‘group of five (sc. fingers)’, i.e., ‘hand’), from the shape of a mark on a rock from un…

i.—A small town in Uttar Pradēs̲h̲, India, 27° 32′ N., 80° 45′ E., 75 km. north of Lakhnaʾū (Lucknow) on the Barēlī road, now of small importance but in Mug̲h̲al times the headquarters of one of the five sarkār s of the sūba of Awadh (Abu ’l-Faḍl ʿAllāmī, Āʾīn-i Akbarī , Eng. tr. Jarrett, Bibl. Ind., ii, 93, 176). Under the kingdom of Awadh [ q.v.] it became the headquarters town of a niẓāmat ; but after the British annexation of Awadh its importance declined with the rise of Sītāpur 8 km. to the north. Before the partition of the Indian subconti…

, a town of the Indian Pand̲j̲āb, situated 29° 7′ N., 76° 0′ E., in the Hariyānā [ q.v.] region of which it was the old capital until supplanted by Ḥiṣār Fīrūza [ q.v.] in 757/1356. It is known from inscriptions that it was occupied by the Tomārs and Čawhāns before the Muslim conquest, and was perhaps occupied from Kus̲h̲āṇa times, 1st or 2nd century A.D.: certainly the old fort, to the north-east of the present town, is an extensive tell representing an accumulation of many cultural layers. Hānsī was already a major stronghold when Masʿūd, son of Maḥm…

(a.), pl. nuḳabāʾ , “chief, leader”, of a tribe or other group, a term used in various senses at different times of Islamic history. For its sense as head of the community of ʿAlid descendants, see naḳīb al-as̲h̲rāf . 1. In early Islamic history. One of the term’s usages in early Islamic history is in connection with the preparatory stages of the ʿAbbāsid Revolution of 129-32/746-50. The term naḳīb had already established itself in the story of the Prophet Muḥammad’s career, when the Medinans negotiating with him about the hid̲j̲ra from Mecca to Medina were asked to appoint 12 nuḳabāʾ as repr…