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[English edition] (أ) الحجّ إلى مكّة، وعرفات ومنى، هو خامس أركان الإسلام الخمسة. ويسمّى أيضاً بالحج الأكبر على عكس العمرة [راجع هنا عمرة] التي تسمى بالحجّ الأصغر. كان لشعائره، التي تقام سنويّا في الماضي، كما في وقتنا الحاضر، تأثير عميق في العالم الإسلامي. فأولئك الذين لا يشاركون فيه يتبعون الحجّاج بتفكيرهم، يساعدهم على ذلك رجال الدّين والصحافة والراديو والتلفزيون في أيّامنا، عن طريق مدّهم بنشرات أخبار وتثقيفهم عقائديا. وهذا الحدث بالنسبة إلى الأمّة الإسلاميّة نفسها هو مناسبة لمراجعة امتدادها وعظمتها. وقد أضيف إلى رمزيته الدينيّة والاجتماعية السياسية التي ما زال هذا التجمّع …

[English edition] الخطبة هي الموعظة، أو الكلام الذي ينشئه الخطيب [انظره]. وللخطبة محلّ ثابت في الشعائر الإسلامية، أي في صلاة الجمعة، والاحتفال بالعيدين، وفي الصلوات التي تقام في مناسبات خاصة كالخسوف والاستسقاء. وفي الجمعة تُلقَى الخطبةُ بعد الصلاة، وفي الصلوات الأخرى تكون الخطبة سابقة. ويمكن أن نورد ههنا وصفا موجزا لقواعد الخطبة اعتماداً على الشيرازي [انظر ترجمته في Tanbīh, ed. Juynboll, 40] وهو أحد أوائل الخطباء الشافعية. أ. من شروط صحة صلاة الجمعة أنها ينبغي أن تُسبَق بخطبتين. وشروط صحة هاتين الخُطْبَتَيْن هي التالية: أن يكون الخطيب في حال طهارة؛ وأن يكون لبا…

[English edition] مكّة (ويقال لها بالإنڤليزية «Mecca» في المعهود المتعارف، وبالفرنسيّة «La Mecque»)، هي أقدس مدينة في الإسلام، فيها ولد النبيّ محمد وعاش 50 عاما تقريباً، وفيها توجد الكعبة [انظر ه]. 1. عصرا ما قبل الإسلام وصدر الإسلام 1.1 الوصف الجغرافي تقع مكة في الحجاز على بعد نحو 72 كم، باتجاه الداخل من ميناء جدة [انظره] على البحر الأحمر، في خطّ العرض 21 ° 27 ‹شمالا وخطّ الطول 39 ° 49 ‹شرقا. وهي الآن عاصمة المناطق الإداريّة لمكة في المملكة العربيّة السعودية، ويتراوح عدد سكانها العادي بين 200.000 و300.000 نسمة ويمكن أن يزيد هذا العدد تقريباً بمليون ونصف أو مليونين أثناء موسم الحج السنويّ. وتقع مك…

[English edition] الكعبة أشهر معبد في الإسلام، ويعرف ببيت الله. تقع الكعبة تقريباً في مركز المسجد الحرام في مكّة، ويتوّجه المسلمون من كلّ أرجاء العالم في صلواتهم إلى هذا الحرم، حيث يؤدي مئات الآلاف من الحجّاج كلّ سنة الحجّ الأكبر(الحجّ) أو الحجّ الأصغر(العمرة)؛ فيعتكفون حولها ويطوفون بها. وقد قضّت الأمّة المسلمة الفتّية سنوات الإسلام الأولى حول الكعبة. وتحتلّ الكعبة، عند جماعة المسلمين مكانة تضاهي مكانة الهيكل في القدس عند يهود اليهود القدامى. 1. الكعبة وما جاورها يرتبط اسم الكعبة بمظهر البناء الذي يشبه المكّعب، وفي السّابق كان الاسم يستخدم لوصف كلّ المعابد ذات الشكل ال…

L’avant-propos du premier tome de l’ouvrage actuel ne saurait être que provisoire: l’introduction générale, qui contiendra, entre autres, un aperçu de sa genèse et de son développement, est destinée à accompagner le tome final. Dès maintenant je tiens à souligner la part très considérable que l’Académie Royale d’Amsterdam, qui a bien voulu en agréer le patronage, a daigné prendre aux travaux préparatoires. C’est elle aussi, qui a continué se charger de l’administration financière. Dès 1932 l’Union Académique Internationale a bien voulu prendre l’entreprise sous son é…

, proper name of the devil, probably a contraction of διάβολος. A different etymology has been suggested by D. Künstlinger, in RO, vi, 76 ff.; ¶ the Arab philologists consider that Iblīs derives from the root bls , “because Iblīs has nothing to expect ( ublisa ) from the mercy of God”. He is also known as ʿAduww Allāh (the enemy of God) and al-ʿAduww (the Enemy). Finally he is given the common name of al-s̲h̲ayṭān [ q.v.]. In the Ḳurʾān he appears at two points in the story of the beginning of the world. (1) When God had created Adam [ q.v.] from clay and had breathed into him the spirit of life…

(a.), the noun of place from ṣallā “to perform the Muslim worship, ṣalāt [ q.v.]”, hence the place where the ṣalāt is performed on certain occasions. 1. Historical and legal aspects. ¶ When Muḥammad had fixed his abode in Medina, he performed the ordinary ṣalāts in his dār , which was also his masd̲j̲id (not in the sense of temple). The extraordinary ṣalāts, however, were performed on a place situated southwest of the city in the territory of the Banū Salima, outside the wall, northeast of the bridge on the wādī , where at present the street from the suburb of al…

, the basin at which on the day of the resurrection Muḥammad will meet his community. This idea is not found in the Ḳurʾān, but in Tradition, which supplies a great variety of details of which the following are the more important. Muḥammad is called the precursor ( faraṭ ) of his community On the day of the resurrection the latter, in the first place the poor who have not known the pleasures of life, will join him near the basin. So far as one can judge, the question is one of admittance: Muḥammad pleads with Allāh for hi…

, Abū ʿAbd al-Raḥmān Aḥmad b. ʿAlī b. S̲h̲uʿayb b. Baḥr b. Sinān , author of one of the six canonical collections of traditions [see Ḥadīt̲h̲ ], b. 215/830, d. 303/915. Very little is known about him. He is said to have made extensive travels in order to hear traditions, to have settled in Egypt, afterwards in Damascus, and to have died in consequence of ill-treatment to which he was exposed at Damascus or, according to others, at Ramla, in consequence of his feelings in favour of ʿAlī and against t…

, Mary, the mother of Jesus. The Arabic form of the name is identical with po and μαριάμ. which are used in the Syriac and the Greek Bible, in the New as well as in the Old Testament. In the latter it corresponds to the Hebrew . Al-Bayḍāwī considers the name to be Hebrew; but the vowelling would seem to indicate a Christian source, according to A. Jeffery, Foreign vocabulary of the Quʾān , Baroda 1938, s.v. The name Maryam, like others with the same suffix, such as ʿAmram, Bilʿam, points to the region between Palestine and Northwestern Arabia as…

(a.), plural ak̲h̲bār , ak̲h̲ābir , report, piece of information. The word is not used in any special context in the Ḳurʾān. In the ḥadīt̲h̲ it occurs among other passages in the tradition which describes how the d̲j̲inn by eavesdropping obtain information from heaven ( k̲h̲abar min al-samaʾ ) and how they are pelted with fiery meteors to prevent them from doing so (al-Buk̲h̲ārī, Ad̲h̲ān , bāb 105; Muslim, Ṣalāt , tr. 149); al-Tirmid̲h̲ī, Tafsīr , Sūra Ixxii, trad. 1). In his collection al-Buk̲h̲āri has a chapter entitled Ak̲h̲bār al-āḥād , which, as the tard̲j̲ama …

, apostle. The word is borrowed from Ethiopie, in which language ḥawāryā has the same meaning (see Nöldeke, Beiträge z . sem . Sprachwissenschaft , 48). The suggested derivations from Arabic, attributing to it the meaning “one who wears white clothing” etc., are incorrect. Tradition delights to endow the earliest Islamic pioneers with foreign bynames which were familiar to the “people of the Book”. Abū Bakr is called al-Ṣiddīḳ , ʿUmar al-Fārūḳ , al-Zubayr b. al-ʿAwwām al-Ḥawārī Moreover, the collective term al-Ḥawāriyyūn occurs, denoting twelve persons …

(a.), a term denoting the toothbrush as well as the tooth-pick. The more usual word is siwāk (plural suwuk ) which denotes also the act of cleansing the teeth. Neither of the two terms occurs in the Ḳurʾān. In Ḥadīt̲h̲ , miswāk is not used, siwāk, on the other hand, frequently. In order to understand its use, it is necessary to know that the instrument consists of a piece of smooth wood, the end of which is incised so as to make it similar to a brush to some extent. The piece of wood used as a tooth-pick must have been smaller and thinner,…

(in European literature one also finds ʿAzrāʾīl), the name of the an gel of death, one of the four archangels (next to D̲j̲ibrīl, Mīk̲h̲āʾīl, Isrāfīl). Like Isrāfīl, whose office of trumpet-blower at the last judgment is sometimes given to him, he is of cosmic magnitude; if the water of all the seas and rivers were poured on his head, not a drop would reach the earth. He has a seat ( sarīr ) of light in the fourth or seventh heaven, on which one of his feet rests; the other stands on the bridge between paradise and hell. He is however also said to have 70,000 feet. The description of his appearance a…

, the name of the Mosque of Mecca. The name is already found in the pre-Islamic period (Horovitz, Koranische Studien , 140-1) in Ḳays b. al-K̲h̲aṭīm, ed. Kowalski, v. 14: “By Allāh, the Lord of the Holy Masd̲j̲id and of that which is covered with Yemen stuffs, which are embroidered with hempen thread” (?). It would be very improbable if a Medinan poet meant by these references anything other than the Meccan sanctuary. The expression is also fairly frequent in the Ḳurʾān after the second Meccan period (Horovitz, op. cit.) and in various connections; it is a grave sin on the part ¶ of the polythei…

(a.), plural aḳwām , aḳāwim , aḳāyim , people. The word occurs also in Nabataean, Palmyrene and Ṣafaitic inscriptions in the name of the deity S̲h̲ayʿ al-Ḳawm “support of the people”, see Lidzbarski, Ephemeris für semitische Epigraphik , i, Index s.v. According to some lexicographers, the word applies in the first place to men; evidence for this opinion is afforded by passages from literature where Ḳawm is used in opposition to nisāʾ (women). The term does not primarily suggest the meaning of nation. A man’s Ḳawm are his s̲h̲ī ʿa and his ʿas̲h̲īra . In this limited…

(a.), pilgrimage to Mecca, ʿArafāt and Minā, the fifth of the five “pillars” ( arkān ) of Islam. It is also called the Great Pilgrimage in contrast to the ʿumra [ q.v.] or Little Pilgrimage. Its annual observance has had, and continues to have, a profound influence on the Muslim world. Those not taking part follow the pilgrims in thought; the religious teachers, and nowadays the press, radio and television help them in this by providing doctrine and news bulletins. For the Muslim community itself this event is the occasion fo…

, name of the second month of the Islamic year, also called Ṣ al-k̲h̲ayr or Ṣ al-muẓaffar because of its being considered to be unlucky (C. Snouck Hurgronje, The Atchehnese , i, 206; idem, Mekka , ii, 56). The Muslim Tigrē tribes pronounce the name S̲h̲afar, the Achehnese Thapa. According to Wellhausen, in the old Arabian year, Ṣafar comprised a period of two months in which al-Muḥarram (which name, according to this scholar is a Muslim innovation) was included. As a matter of fact, tradition reports that the early Arabians called al-Muḥarram Ṣafar and considered an ʿumra …

(a.), also watr , a term found in ḥadīt̲h̲ and fiḳh in connection with performance of the ṣalāt or worship and concerned with the odd number of rakʿa s which are performed at night. Witr does not occur in this sense in the Ḳurʾān, but frequendy in ḥadīt̲h̲, which in this case also discloses to us a part of the history of the institution in three stages, itself probably a continuation of the history of the fixing of the daily ṣalāts, as the traditions on witr presuppose the five daily ṣalāts, Some traditions even go so far as to call witr an additional ṣalāt of an obligatory nature (see also below…

(Hebrew Āsāf b. Bērek̲h̲yā), name of the alleged wazīr of King Solomon. According to the legend he was Solomon’s confidant, and always had access to him. When the royal consort Ḏj̲arāda was worshipping idols Āṣāf delivered a public address in which he praised the apoştles of God, Solomon among them, but only for the excellent qualities he had manifested in his youth. Solomon in anger at this took him to task, but was reproved for the introduction of idol-worship at the court. This was then done away with and the consort punished; the king became repentant. (A.J. Wensinck) Bibliography Ṭabarī,…

(a.), patronymic, an onomastic element composed of Abū (m.) “father” or Umm (f.) “mother” plus a name. We have here a metonymic designation corresponding to a general tendency among primitive peoples to consider an individual’s name as taboo and not to pronounce it unless exceptionally (see J. G. Frazer, The golden bough, ch. xxii). The kunya was therefore accordingly the name which should be used, but in historical times, the original intention here was forgotten, and al-Ḏj̲āḥiẓ (see JA [1967], 70, 82), far from seeing here any ¶ connection with sympathetic magic, counts the kunya …

, the name of the earliest of the five “Arab” prophets mentioned in the Ḳurʾān (Hūd, Ṣāliḥ, Ibrāhīm, S̲h̲uʿayb and Muḥammad). In his history, which is related three times (on this repetition, see al-Diāḥiẓ, Bayān , ed. Hārūn, i, 105) in slightly different forms (in chronological order: XXVI, 123-40, XI [ Sūra of Hūd ], 52-63/50-60, VII, 63-70/65-72, XLVI, 20/21, merely a restatement), the Ḳurʾān represents him as an ʿĀdī sent to this people [see ʿād ] to exhort them to adore the One God; but, like Muḥammad later in Mecca, he found only incredulity …

, the name of the tenth month of the Muslim lunar year. In the Ḳurʾān (sūra X, 2), four months are mentioned during which, in the year 9/630-1, the Arabs could move in their country without exposing themselves to attacks (cf. “the sacred months” in v. 5). These four months were, according to the commentaries, S̲h̲awwāl, D̲h̲u ’l-Ḳaʿda, D̲h̲u ’l-Ḥid̲j̲d̲j̲a and Muḥarram. In Ḥadīt̲h̲ , S̲h̲awwāl is therefore among “the months of pilgrimage mentioned in Allāh’s Book” (al-Buk̲h̲ārī, Ḥad̲j̲d̲j̲ , bāb 33, 37). In pre-Islamic times, S̲h̲awwāl was considered ill-omened for the conclus…

(a.) pls. ṣulub , şulbān , a cross, and, particularly, the object of Christian veneration. The term is used for cross-shaped marks e.g. brands on camels and designs woven into cloth, and in legal contexts for the instrument of execution. The Ḳurʾān refers in six places to the act of crucifying as a punishment. Four of these are set in ancient Egypt: in sūra XII, 41, Yūsuf predicts that one of the men jailed with him will be crucified and birds will eat from his head; in VII, 124, XX, 71, and XXVI, 49, Pharaoh vows to crucify the magic…

al-Ḥanafī al-Ḥanẓalī, Abū Rās̲h̲id (said to be the son of a freedman of Greek origin who was a blacksmith; al-Balād̲h̲urī. Futūḥ , 56), K̲h̲arid̲j̲ite who played quite a considerable role in Islamic history as leader of an extremist fraction of that sect known after him as the Azāriḳa [ q.v.] or Azraḳīs, which lived on substantially after his death; he is furthermore said to have laid down their doctrines. The sequence of events in which he was involved is difficult to establish, since there is a certain confusion in the narratives involving him. From them one le…

, the name of a popular figure, who plays a prominent part in legend and story. Al-K̲h̲aḍir is properly an epithet (“the green man”); this was in time forgotten and this explains the secondary form K̲h̲iḍr (approximately “the green”), which in many places has displaced the primary form. (i) In the Ḳurʾān and in oriental legend Legends and stories regarding al-K̲h̲aḍir are primarily associated with the Ḳurʾānic story in Sūra XVIII, 59-81, the outline of which is as follows. Mūsā goes on a journey with his servant ( fatā ), the goal of which is the mad̲j̲maʿ al-baḥrayn . …

(a.), pl. mawālī , a term of theological, historical and legal usage which had varying meanings in different periods and in different social contexts. Linguistically, it is the noun of place of the verb waliya , with the basic meaning of “to be close to, to be connected with someone or something” (see LA, xx, 287ff.; TA, x, 398-401), whence acquiring the sense “to be close to power, authority” > “to hold power, govern, be in charge of some office” (see Lane, s.v.) and yielding such administrative terms as wālī “governor”, and wilāya [ q.v.] “the function of governor” or, in a legal conte…

(a.), pl. of tarwīḥa , the term for ṣalāt s which are performed in the nights of the month of Ramaḍān. Tradition says that Muḥammad held these prayers in high esteem, with the precaution, however, that their performance should not become obligatory (al-Buk̲h̲ārī, Tarāwīḥ , trad. 3). ʿUmar is said to have been the first to assemble behind one ḳāriʾ those who performed their prayers in the mosque of Medina singly or in groups ( loc. cit., trad. 2); he is also said to have preferred the first part of the night for these pious exercises. The religious law recommends the performance of the tarāwīḥ …

This is the name given by the commentators to Pharaoh’s wife, who is twice (xxviii, 9 and lxvi, 11) mentioned in the Ḳurʾān. She plays the same part as Pharaoh’s daughter in the Bible, so that there is obviously confusion. In the second passage these words are put into her mouth: "My Lord, build me a house with thee in Paradise, and deliver me from Pharaoh and his doings and deliver me from the wicked". In connexion with this passage it is related that Āsiya endured many cruelties at the hands o…

a she-camel or a ewe with slit ears. The Ḳurʾān and ancient poetry (cf. Ibn His̲h̲ām, 58) show that the ancient Arabs used to carry out certain religions cérémonies with respect to their cattle, which consisted firstly in letting the animal go about loose without making any use of it whatever, and secondly in limiting to males permission to eat its flesh (after it had died). In the varions cases the animais bore special names ( Baḥīra , Sāʾiba , Waṣīla , Ḥāmī ; on these names cf. Wellhausen as cited below). The lexicographers are not quite agreed on the p…

(a.), lord, God, master of a slave. Pre-Islamic Arabia probably applied this term to its gods or to some of them. In this sense the word corresponds to the terms like Baʿal, Adonis, etc. in the Northwestern Semitic languages, where rabb means “much, great” (see A. Jeffery, The foreign vocabulary of the Qurʾān , Baroda 1938, 136-7). In one of the oldest sūras (CVI, 3) Allāh is called the “lord of the temple”. Similarly, al-Lāt bore the epithet al-Rabba , especially at Ṭāʾif where she was worshipped in the image of a stone or of a rock. In the Ḳurʾān, rabb (especially with the possessive suffix)…

(a.), intention. The acts prescribed by the Islamic s̲h̲arīʿa , obligatory or not, require to be preceded by a declaration by the performer, that he intends to perform such an act. This declaration, pronounced ¶ audibly or mentally, is called niyya . Without it, the act would be bāṭil [ q.v.]. The niyya is required before the performance of the ʿibādāt , such as washing, bathing, prayer, alms, fasting, retreat, pilgrimage, sacrifice. “Ceremonial acts without niyya are not valid”, says al-G̲h̲azālī ( Iḥyāʾ , Cairo 1282, iv, 316). Yet a survey of the opinions of the lawyers regarding the niyya …

, the name of an archangel, which is probably to be traced to the Hebrew Serāfīm as is ¶ indicated by the variants Sarāfīl and Sarāfīn ( Tād̲j̲ al-ʿArūs , vii, 375) The change of liquids is not unusual in such eudings. His size is astounding; while his feet are under the seventh earth, his head reaches up to the pillars of the divine throne. He has four wings: one in the west, one in the east, one with which he covers his body and one as a protection against the majesty of God. He is covered with hair,…

al-Ḥanafī al-Ḥanhẓalī, Abū Rās̲h̲id, according to some sources, the son of a freed blacksmith of Greek origin (Balād̲h̲urī, ed. de Goeje, p. 56), chief of the extreme Ḵh̲ārid̲j̲ites [q. v.], who after him are called Azraḳites [q. v.]. At first, after his secession to Ahwāz, Nāfiʿ joined ʿAbd Allāh b. al-Zubair [q. v.] in Makka. Soon, however, he and his followers turned their backs on the holy city and arrived before Baṣra, where they spread terror among the inhabitants, who left the town in mult…

, tenth letter of the Arabic alphabet, with the numerical value of 200. For its palaeo-graphical evolution see the article arabia, plate i. It belongs to the group of the liquids and is frequently interchanged with l and n. It regularly corresponds to the r of other Semitic languages. It is not guttural but lingual. (A. J. Wensinck) Bibliography W. Wright, Lectures on the. comparative grammar of the Semitic languages, Cambridge 1890, p. 67 H. Zimmern, Vergl. Grammatik der sem. Sprachen, Leipzig 1898, p. 31—32 Brockelmann, Précis de linguistique sémitique, transi, by W. Marçais and M…

, i.e. lord of the Muslims, a title which the Almoravids first assumed, in contra-distinction to Amīr al-Muʾminīn [q. v.]. The latter title was born by the independant dynasties; the Almoravids, however, recognized the supremacy of the ʿAbbāsids and did not wish to arrogate to themselves this title of the Caliphs. So they established a kind of sub-caliphate with a title of their own. Afterwards the African and Spanish princes bore either the one or the other of these titles, according as they sought after the independent caliphate or recognized any supremacy. (A. J. Wensinck) Bibliography…

(a., mifʿāl-form from w-ḳ-t, plural mawāḳīt) appointed or exact time. In this sense the term occurs several times in the Ḳurʾān (sūra ii. 185; vii. 138, 139, 154; xxvi. 37; xliv. 40; lvi. 50; lxxviii. 17). In ḥadīt̲h̲ and fiḳh the term is applied to the times of prayer and to the places where those who enter the ḥaram are bound to put on the iḥrām. For the latter meaning of the term cf. iḥrām, 1. Although some general indications for the times at which some ṣalāts are to be performed occur in the Ḳurʾān (cf. sūra ii. 239; xi. 116; xvii. 80; xxiv. 29), it may be considered above doubt ¶ that during Muḥamm…

(a.), plur. nawāfil, part. art. fem. I from n-f-l, supererogatory work. 1. The word occurs in the Ḳurʾān in two places. Sūra xxi. 72 runs: “And we bestowed on him [viz. Ibrāhīm] Isaac and Jacob as additional gift” ( nāfilat an). In Sūra xvii. 81 it is used in combination with the vigils, thus: “And perform vigils during a part of the night, reciting the Ḳurʾān, as a nāfila for thee”. In ḥadīt̲h̲ it is frequently used in this sense. “Forgiveness of sins past and future was granted him [Muḥammad] and his works were to him as supererogatory works” (Aḥmad b. Ḥanbal, vi. 250). —…

(a.), sermon, address by the k̲h̲aṭīb [q. v.]. The k̲h̲uṭba has a fixed place in Muḥammadan ritual, viz. in the Friday-service, in the celebration of the two festivals, in services held at particular occasions such as an eclipse or excessive drought. In the Friday-service it precedes the ṣalāt, in all the other services the ṣalāt comes first. A short description of the rules for the k̲h̲uṭba according to al-S̲h̲īrāzī (q. v., Tanbīh, ed Juynboll, ¶ p. 40), one of the early S̲h̲āfiʿī doctors, may be given here. a. One of the conditions for the validity of the Friday-service is that …

b. al-Ḥārit̲h̲ b. Ḏj̲ābir b. Wahb (or Wuhaib) b. Nusaib Abū ʿUbaid Allāh or Abū G̲h̲azwān al-Māzinī, belonged to the tribe of Ḳais ʿAilān, ḥalīf of the Nawfal or of the ʿAbd S̲h̲ams, one of the oldest Companions of the Prophet, “the seventh of the Seven”, i. e. the seventh to adopt Islām and one who had shared in the sufferings to which the first believers had been exposed in Mecca. He took part in both hid̲j̲ras, the battle of Badr, and in most of the battles and expeditions of the Prophet. — He is best known as the f…

, Zāy, 11th letter of the Arabic alphabet, with the numerical value of 7. For its palaeographical pedigree, see arabia, plate i. It belongs to the sibilants ( al-ḥurūf al-asalīya) and corresponds to the same sound in the other Semitic languages. It is pronounced like English and French z. In the spoken Arabic of to-day z may also represent other sounds of the classical language, such as d̲h̲ and ẓ. In Persia and Turkey Arabic ḍ is often pronounced z. (A. J. Wensinck) Bibliography W. Wright, Comparative Grammar of the Semitic Languages, Cambridge 1890, p. 57 sq. A. Schaade, Sibawaihī’s Lautleh…

, the name of the patriarch of Israel. only appears once in the Ḳurʾān, apart from the frequent name, Banū Isrāʾīl, for the people of Israel. In Sura iii. 87 it is said: ʿAlī foods were permitted to the Israelites except that which Israel declared forbidden for himself before the Tora was revealed”. According to the commentators, this means that the restrictions on food were only revealed as a result of the wickedness of the Israelites. Their ancestor himself only refrained from eating camel flesh or drinking camel milk; according to some, because he was afflicted with the disease called ʿirḳ …

(al-Ḵh̲iḍr), the name of a popular figure, who plays a prominent part in legend and story. Al-Ḵh̲aḍir is properly an epithet (“the green man”); this was in time forgotten and this explains the secondary form Ḵh̲iḍr (about “the green”), which in many places has displaced the primary form. Legends and stories regarding al-Ḵh̲aḍir are primarily associated with the Ḳurʾānic story in Sūra xviii. 59—81, the outline of which is as follows. Mūsā goes on a journey with his servant ( fatā), the goal of which is the Mad̲j̲maʿ al-Baḥrain. But when they reach this place, they find that as a res…

(a.), infinitive II from the root k-b-r in the denominative sense: to pronounce the formula Allāh akbar. It is already used in this sense in the Ḳurʾān (e. g. Sūra lxxiv. 3; xvii., m with Allāh as the object). On the different explanations of the elative akbar in this formula cf. Lisān, s. v. and the Ḳurʾānic elative akram also applied to Allāh (Sūra xcvi. 3) and aʿlā (Sūra xcii. 20; lxxxvii. 1). The formula, as the briefest expression of the absolute superiority of the One God, is used in Muslim life in different circumstances, in which the idea of Allāh, his greatn…

is the name of an early-Arabian idol which was venerated by Ḳurais̲h̲ and Hud̲h̲ail, as may be concluded from the fact that among these clans the name ʿAbd Manāf “servant of Manāf” occurred. It is said that one of Muḥammad’s ancestors — the pedigree being Muḥammad b. ʿAbd Allāh b. ʿAbd al-Muṭṭalib b. Hās̲h̲im b. ʿAbd Manāf — received this name, because his mother consecrated him to Manāf, who was then the chief deity of Makka. Whether this last statement be true or not, it does not restore to life a deity whose individuality remains to us as dim as that of all its compa…

(a.), also pronounced sebḥa, the rosary, which at present is used by nearly all classes of Muslims, except the Wahhābīs who disapprove of it as a bidʿa. There is evidence for its having been used at first in Ṣūfī circles and among the lower classes (Goldziher, Rosaire, p. 296); opposition against it made itself heard as late as the xvth century a. d., when Suyūtī composed an apology for it (Goldziher, Vorlesungen über den Islam, 1st ed., p. 165). At present it is usually carried by the pilgrims (cf. Mez, Die Renaissance des Islâms, p. 441) and the darwīs̲h̲es. The rosary consists of three gro…

, the usual name in Arabic for the ritual prayer or divine service. The translation “prayer” simply is not accurate; the Arabic word duʿāʾ corresponds to the conception prayer (Snouck Hurgronje has several times drawn attention to this distinction; Verspreide Geschriften, i. 213 sq., ii. 90, iv/i. 56, 63 sq., etc.). The word does not seem to occur in the pre-Ḳorʾānic literature. Muḥammad took it, like the ceremony, from the Jews and Christians in Arabia. In many Kūfic copies of the Ḳorʾān and often in later literature also in connection with the sacred book it is written . It is very often …

, in the Ḳorʾān (vi. 74) the name of Abraham’s father. There appears to be some confusion here as the name is nowhere else given to Abraham’s father. That he was called Tāraḥ (Tārak̲h̲) is also related by Muslim commentators and historians; to reconcile these two statements the usual artifices are resorted to, but these have no value. According to Maracci ( Prodromi, iv. 90) the form Āzar is due to a false reading ’Αθαρ in Eusebius’ Ecclesiastical Chronicle. Neither Maracci, nor any of those who cite him later, has given a more exact reference to the passa…

(a.), part. act. iv. of ʿ-d̲j̲-z, lit. “the overwhelming”, has become the technical term for miracle. It does not occur in the Ḳurʾān, which denies miracles in connection with Muḥammad, whereas it emphasizes his “signs”, āyāt, i. e. verses of the Ḳurʾān; cf. the art. koran. Even in later literature Muḥammad’s chief miracle is the Ḳurʾān (cf. Abū Nuʿaim, Dalāʾil al-Nubuwwa, ¶ p. 74). Muʿd̲j̲iza and āya have become synonyms; they denote the miracles performed by Allāh in order to prove the sincerity of His apostles. The term karāma [q. v.] is used in connection with the saints; it di…

, the prophet. His name is vocalised in Arabic irmiyā, armiyā or ūrmiyā (see Tād̲j̲ al-ʿArūs, x. 157) and these forms are occasionally given with madd also ( Irmiyāʾ). Wabh b. Munabbih gives an account of him which turns upon the main points of the Old Testament story of Jeremiah: his call to be a prophet, his mission to the king of Judah, his mission to the people and his reluctance, the announcement of a foreign tyrant who is to rule over Judah. Jeremiah then rends his garments and curses the day on which he was born; he …

(a.), pluralof ḥawrāʾ, fem. of aḥwar, literally “the white ones” i. e. the maidens in Paradise, the black iris of whose eyes is in strong contrast to the clear white around it. The nomen unitatis in Persian is ḥūrī (also ḥūrī-behes̲h̲tī), Arabic ḥūrīya. The explanation of the word found in Arabic works “those at whom the spectator is astounded ( ḥāra )” is of course false and is therefore rejected even by other Arab philologists. These maidens of Paradise are described in various passages in the Ḳurʾān. In Sūra ii. 23, iii. 13, iv. 60, they are called “purified wives”;…

, the archangel Michael [cf. malāʾika], whose name occurs once in the Ḳurʾān, viz. in sūra ii. 92: “Whosoever is an enemy to Allāh, or his angels, or his apostles, or to Gabriel or to Michael, verily Allāh is an enemy to the unbelievers”. In explanation of this verse two stories are told. According to the first, the Jews, wishing to test the veracity of the mission of Muḥammad, asked him several questions, on all of which he gave the true answer. Finally they asked him who transmitted the revelations…

(a.), part. pass. IV from ṭ-l-ḳ, “to loose the bond ( ḳaid) of an animal, so as to let it free” (e.g. Muslim, Ḏj̲ihād, trad. 46; Abū Dāwūd, Ḏj̲ihād, bāb 100). The term is also applied ¶ to the loosening of the bowstring (Buk̲h̲ārī, Ḏj̲ihād, b. 170), of the garments, the hair etc. Thence the common meaning absolute, as opposed to restricted ( muḳaiyad), and further the accusative muṭlaḳan “absolutely”. The use of the term is so widely diffused, that a few examples only can be given. In grammar the term mafʿūl muṭlaḳ denotes the absolute object (cognate accusative), i. e. the objectivate…

b. al-Ḍaḥḥāk b. Zaid b. Lawd̲h̲ān b. ʿAmr b. ʿAbd Manāf (or ʿAwf) b. G̲h̲anm b. Mālik b. al-Nad̲j̲d̲j̲īr al-Anṣārī al-Ḵh̲azrad̲j̲ī, one of the Companions of Muḥammad, best known through his part in the editing of the Ḳurʾān. His father was killed in the battle of Buʿāt̲h̲ [q. v.], five years before the hid̲j̲ra, when Zaid was six years old. His ¶ mother was al-Nawār, daughter of Mālik b. Muʿāwiya b. ʿAdī, also of a Madīnd̲j̲ad̲j̲ family. It is said that the boy knew already a number of Sūras when Muḥammad settled in al-Madīna. At any rate he became his secretary, who rec…

, the mosque built on the site of the Temple in Jerusalem. The name means “the remotest sanctuary” and is first found in the Ḳurʾān, Sūra xvii. 1: “Praise ʿilm who made his servant journey in the night from the holy place to the remotest sanctuary, which we have surrounded with blessings to show him of our signs”. As was explained in the article isrāʾ [q. v.], the older exegesis refers this verse to the journey to heaven [cf. miʿrād̲j̲] and sees in the name al-Masd̲j̲id al-Aḳṣā a reference to some heavenly place (cf. Sidrat al-Muntahā, Sūra liii. 14). This explanation had however in time to g…

(in European literature one also finds ʿAzrāʾīl), the name of the angel of death, one of the four archangels (next to Ḏj̲ibrīl, Mīk̲h̲āʾīl, Isrāfīl). The name is perhaps a corruption of which is given by Eisenmenger, Entdecktes Judenthum, ii. 333, as the name of the prince of Hell. Like Isrāfīl, whose office of trumpet-blower at the last judgment is sometimes given to him, he is of cosmic magnitude; if the water of all the seas and rivers were poured on his head, not a drop would reach the earth. He has a seat ( sarīr) of light in the fourth or seventh heaven, on which one of his feet re…

(a., plural sad̲j̲id̲j̲id, sad̲j̲ād̲j̲īd, sawād̲j̲id), the carpet on which the ṣalāt is performed. The word is found neither in the Ḳorʾān nor in the canonical Ḥadīt̲h̲; the article itself, however, was known at quite an early period, as may be seen from the traditions about to be mentioned. In the Ḥadīt̲h̲ we are often told how Muḥammad and his followers performed the ṣalāt on the floor of the mosque in Medīna after a heavy shower of rain with the result that their noses and heads came in contact with the mud (e. g. al-Buk̲h̲ārī, Ad̲h̲ān, bāb 135, 151; Muslim, Ṣiyām, trad. 214—216, 218 etc.)…

(Plur. Farāʿina), Pharaoh. The word is explained by the commentaries on Sūra ii. 46 of the Ḳorʾān as a laḳab or ʿalam of the Amalakite kings, like Kisrā and Ḳaiṣar of the Kings of the Persians and Romans. The verb tafarʿana means “to be arrogant and tyrannous”, hence the Ḳorʾānic Firʿawn is called al-Ḏj̲abbār “the tyrant” by al-Yaʿḳūbī (ed. Houtsma), i. 31. A number of Firʿawns are mentioned in Arabic literature; their number is very differently given. In the Ḳorʾān, however, Firʿawn is always the kfng with whom Mūsā and Hārūn had to deal; the word is here clearly understood as a proper name. The …

, ʿAbd al-Raḥmān b. ʿAmr Abū ʿAmr, a jurist born in Baʿalbekk 88 (757). Later he lived in Damascus and Bairūt. Nothing else is known abut his life, his good character and asceticism are emphasized; he died in his bath in the year 157 (774) and was buried in the Ḳibla of the mosque in Bairūt. — Al-Awzāʿī during his life-time was a star of the first magnitude. He is said to have been the Imām of Syria and even the Mag̲h̲rib and Spain are said to have followed his Mad̲h̲hab. His influence soon declined in favour of that of Abū Ḥanīfa and of Mālik. Hardly any data about hi…

, properly ʿAbd al-Raḥmān b. ʿAbd Allāh, Arab poet, who lived in Kūfa in the second half of the i. (vii.) cent. He was married to a sister of the theologian al-S̲h̲aʿbī, and he, again, had married a sister of al-Aʿs̲h̲ā. The role which he played under ʿAbd al-Raḥmān b. al-As̲h̲ʿat̲h̲ is best known. He took part in his campaign against the Turks and was taken captive but escaped with the aid of a Turkish woman whose passions were enflamed for him. When Ibn al-As̲h̲ʿat̲h̲ turned against al-Ḥad̲j̲d…

, the name of a month, which is found as early as in inscriptions from Palmyra (see S. A. Cook, A Glossary of the Aramaic Inscriptions, s. v.) and corresponds to Marḥes̲h̲wān. It later appears among the Syriac names of the months (see Payne Smith, Thesaurus Syrd., s.v.) as K. ḳed̲ēm or ḳad̲māyā and K. ḥrāy or ḥrāyā. Here the two K. are the ninth and tenth months respectively. Al-Bīrūnī, Kitāb al-Āt̲h̲ār al-bāḳiya, ed. Sachau, p. 60, transcribes the Syriac forms exactly as K. ḳadīm and K. ḥrāy. In Arabic terminology they are called K. al-awwal and K. al-āk̲h̲ir, In the Ḥadīt̲h̲ the former app…

, nisba [cf. nasaf] of several eminent persons of whom the following may be mentioned: I. Abu ’l-Muʿīn Maimūn b. Muḥammad b. Muḥammad ... b. Makḥūl ... al-Ḥanafī al-Makḥūlī (d. 508 = 1114), one of the mutakallimūn [q. v.] whose scholastic position is between that of the early period as represented by ʿAbd al-Ḳāhir al-Bag̲h̲dādī [q. v.], who is still endeavouring to find a convenient arrangement and an adequate formulation of the contents of kalām, and the younger mutakallims who have at hand the necessary formulas for ready use. Of his works the following are known to me: 1. Tamhīd li-Ḳawāʿid…

(a.), a religio-legal term. The meaning of the root appears to be “to raise”, especially “to elevate a thing so that it is visible to all”. The word does not occur with this sense in either Ḳurʾān or Ḥadīt̲h̲ , but it may be etymologically connected with naṣaba . In the technical vocabulary of uṣūl al-fiḳh , the term refers to a text whose presence in either Ḳurʾān or Ḥadīt̲h̲ must be demonstrated to justify an alleged ruling. In his Risāla , al-S̲h̲āfiʿī uses it to refer to rulings textually referred to in either Ḳurʾān or Sunna , (81, 83, 88, 138, 149, 158-9, 166, 17…

is the name given in the Ḳurʾān (VI, 85 and XXXVII, 123, with a variant Ilyāsīn, perhaps prompted by the rhyme, in verse 130), to the Biblical prophet Elijah; the form Ilyās derives from ’Ελιας, a Hellenized adjustment, but attested also in Syrian and Ethiopic, of the Hebrew name Eliyāh (ū): cf. Jos. Horovitz, Koranische Untersuchungen , 81, 99, 101. In the Ḳurʾān, the figure of Ilyās scarcely shows any outstanding features, except for one allusion (in XXXVII, 125) to the worship of Baal. In the Muslim legend related by later au…

(a.), sermon, address by the k̲h̲aṭīb [ q.v.]. The k̲h̲uṭba has a fixed place in Islamic ritual, viz. in the Friday-service, in the celebration of the two festivals, in services held at particular occasions such as an eclipse or excessive drought. On the Friday it precedes the ṣalāt , in all the other services the ṣalāt comes first. A short description of the rules for the k̲h̲uṭba according to al-S̲h̲īrāzī ( Tanbīh , ed. Juynboll, 40), one of the early S̲h̲āfiʿī doctors [ q.v.], may be given here. (a.) One of the conditions for the validity of the Friday service is that it must be…

(a.), verbal noun of form V of s̲h̲-h-d , the recitation of the s̲h̲ahāda [ q.v.], especially in the ṣalāt [ q.v.]. It must, however, be kept in mind that in this case s̲h̲ahāda comprises not only the kalimatān i, but (1) the following formula: “To God belong the blessed salutations and the good prayers”; (2) the formula “Hail upon thee, O Prophet, and God’s mercy and His blessing; hail upon us and upon God’s pious servants”; and (3) the s̲h̲ahāda proper, consisting of the kalimatān i. The above form of the tas̲h̲ahhud is in keeping with a tradition on the authori…

(a.), usually rendered "patience, endurance". The significance of this conception can hardly be conveyed in a West European language by a single word, as may be seen from the following. According to the Arabic lexicographers, the root ṣ-b-r , of which ṣabr is the nomen actionis, means to restrain or bind; thence ḳatalahu ṣabr an “to bind and then slay someone”. The slayer and the slain in this case are called ṣābir and maṣbūr respectively. The expression is applied, for example, to martyrs and prisoners of war put to death; in the Ḥadīt̲h̲ often to animals that— c…

(a.). 1. The name of a fountain in Paradise, occurring in the Ḳurʾān, LXXXIII, 27, where it is said that its water will be drunk by the muḳarrabūn “those who are admitted to the divine presence” and that it will be mixed with the drink of the mass of the inhabitants of Paradise. The commentaries are uncertain whether tasnīm is a proper name— which, according to the Lisān al-ʿArab , is inconsistent with its being a diptote—or a derivative from the root s-n-m, a root conveying the meaning of “being high” (cf. sanām “camel’s hump”). In the latte…

, the direction of Mecca (or, to be exact, of the Kaʿba or the point between the mīzāb or water-spout and the western corner of it), towards which the worshipper must direct himself for prayer, j i.—Ritual and Legal Aspects From very early times the direction at prayer and divine service for the worshippers was not a matter of choice among the Semitic peoples. There is already an allusion to this in I Kings, viii, 44 and it is recorded of Daniel (Dan., vi, 11) that he offered prayer three times a day in the direction of Jerusalem (which has remained the Jewish ḳibla to this …

, or ʿarafāt , plain about 21 km. (13 miles) east of Mecca, on the road to Ṭāʾif, bounded on the north by a mountain-ridge of the same name. The plain is the site of the central ceremonies of the annual Pilgrimage to Mecca; these are focussed on a conical granite hill in its N.E. corner, under 200 feet in height, and detached from the main ridge; this hill also is called ʿArafa, but more commonly Ḏj̲abal al-Raḥma (Hill of Mercy). On its eastern flank, broad stone steps (constr…

(a.), passive participle of form IV verb ṭ-l-ḳ , “to loose the bond ( ḳayd ) of an animal, so as to let it free” (e.g. Muslim, D̲j̲ihād , trad. 46; Abū Dāwūd, D̲j̲ihād, bāb 100). The term is also applied to the loosening of the bowstring (al-Buk̲h̲ārī, D̲j̲ihād, bāb 170), of the garments, the hair, etc. Thence the common meaning absolute, as opposed to restricted ( muḳayyad ), and further the accusative muṭlaḳ an “absolutely”. The use of the term is so widely diffused that a few examples only can be given. In grammar, the term mafʿūl muṭlaḳ denotes the absolute object (…

(a.), nomen loci from w-ḳ-f “to stand” hence “place of standing”. Of the technical meanings of the term, three may be mentioned here: (a) The place where the wuḳūf [ q.v.] is held during the pilgrimage, viz. ʿArafāt [ q.v.] and Muzdalifa [ q.v.] or D̲j̲amʿ. In well-known traditions, Muḥammad declares that all ʿ Arafāt and all Muzdalifa is mawḳif (Muslim, Ḥad̲j̲d̲j̲ , trad. 149; Abū Dāwūd, Manāsik , bāb 56, 64, etc.; cf. Wensinck, Handbook of early Muhammadan tradition, s.v. ʿArafa). Snouck Hurgronje ( Het mekkaansche feest , 150 = Verspreide Geschriften , i, 99) ha…

(a.), covering, protection, shelter, especially at the ṣalāt , where sutra means the object which the worshipper places in front of himself or lays in the direction of the ḳibla , whereby he shuts himself off in an imaginary area within which he is not disturbed by human or demoniacal influences. “The fictitious fencing off of an open place of prayer, the sutra, seems to have had among other objectives that of warding off demons” (Wellhausen, Reste 2, 158). In one tradition, the man who deliberately penetrates into this imaginary area is actually called a s̲h̲ayṭān (al-Buk̲h̲ārī, Ṣalāt , bāb …

In the treatment of ceremonial law in ḥadīt̲h̲ and fiḳh this term is applied to the odd number of rakʿa’s which are performed at night. For details see below. ¶ I. a. Witr ( watr is also admitted) does not occur in this sense in the Ḳurʾān, but frequently in ḥadīt̲h̲, which in this case also discloses to us a piece of the history of the institution, which is probably a continuation of the history of the fixation of the daily ṣalāt’s, as the traditions on witr presuppose the five daily ṣalāt’s. Some traditions even go so far as to call witr an additional ṣalāt of an obligatory nature (see also belo…

(a.), part. pass. II of ṣ-l-w, place where the ṣalāt is performed on certain occasions. When Muḥammad had fixed his abode in Madīna, he performed the ordinary ṣalāt’s in his dār, which was also his masd̲j̲id (not in the sense of temple). The extraordinary ṣalāt’s, however, were performed on a place situated southwest of the city in the territory of the Banū Salima, outside the wall, northeast of the bridge on the wādī, where at present the street from the suburb al-ʿAnbarīya reaches the market-place Barr al-Munāk̲h̲a (cf. Burton, Personal Narrative, plan opp. i. 256; picture of the m…

, the son of the patriarch Ibrāhīm, is mentioned several times in the Ḳurʾān. In Sūra ii. 130 (= iii. 78) and iv. 161 it is said of him that he received revelations. In xix. 55 he is called a messenger and prophet, who summoned his people to ṣalāt and zakāt. These references fit in very well with Muḥammad’s account of the religion of Ibrāhīm. In Sūra ii. 127, he is called one of the fathers of Jacob, along with Ibrāhīm and Isḥāḳ; and in ii. 119, he, along with Ibrāhīm, is commanded to purify the Holy House at Mecca. Tradition knows nothing of Ismāʿīl as a messenger nor of his revelations nor h…

(a.), custom, use and wont, statute. The word is used in many connections. Here only the following will be dealt with. In the Ḳurʾān sunna usually occurs in two connections: sunnat al-awwalīn, “the sunna of those of old” (viii. 39; xv. 13; xviii. 53; xxxv. 41) and sunnat Allāh, “the sunna of Allāh” (xvii. 79; xxxiii. 62; xxxv. 42; xlviii. 23). The two expressions are synonymous in so far as they refer to Allāh’s punishment of earlier generations, who met the preaching of prophets sent to them with unbelief or scorn. The expressions are theref…

, the Messiah; in Arabic (where the root m-s-ḥ has the meanings of “to measure” and “stroke”) it is a loanword from the Aramaic where was used as a name of the Redeemer. Horovitz ( Koranische Untersuchungen, p. 129) considers the possibility that it was taken over from the Ethiopie ( niasīḥ). Muḥammad of course got the word from the Christian Arabs. In Arab writers we find the view mentioned that the word is a loanword from Hebrew or Syriac. Ṭabarī ( Tafsīr on Sūra iii. 40: vol. in., p. 169) gives only purely Arabic etymologies, either with the meaning “purified” (from sins) …

, name of the tenth month of the lunar year. In the Ḳurʾān (Sūra ix. 2) four months are mentioned during which, in the year 9 a. h., the Arabs could move in their country without exposing themselves to attacks (cf. “the sacred months” in verse 5). These four months were, according to the commentaries, S̲h̲awwāl, Ḏh̲u ’l-Ḳaʿda, Ḏh̲u ’l-Ḥid̲j̲d̲j̲a and Muḥarram. In Ḥadīt̲h̲ S̲h̲awwāl is therefore among “the mon…

(the printed edition of Zamak̲h̲s̲h̲arī’s Kas̲h̲s̲h̲āf gives the form Bunyāmīn), one of the sons of Jacob. The Muḥammadan stories of Benjamin agree in their main points with the Biblical narrative; there are however some additions which are connected with Rabbinical legends. The non-Biblical elements take the following form: when Joseph’s brothers visited him, he had a feast prepared for them and made them …

b. al-Ahtam al-Tamīmī al-Minkarī, a member of a poetically gifted family; and himself fond of using metre and rhyme. He must have been born shortly before the Hid̲j̲ra; for in the year 9 (630) when he came to Medīna with the embassy of his tribe, he is said to have been a youth. In the year 11 (632) he followed the prophetess Sad̲j̲āḥ, but was later converted to Islām and took part in the wars of conquest. He informed ʿOmar in verse of the capture of Rās̲h̲ahr. — Little of his poetry is preserved; …

, the name of a man, who is twice mentioned in the Ḳurʾān. Sūra xix. 57 sq.: “Mention Idrīs in the book. Verily he was an upright man, a prophet and we raised him to a high place”. And Sūra xxi. 85, mentions him alorig with Ismāʿīl and Ḏh̲u ’l-Kifl as one of the patient ( ṣābirūn…

(a.), lord, God, master of a slave. Pre-Islāmic Arabia probably applied this term to its gods or to some of them. In this sense the word corresponds to the terms like Baʿal, Adon in the Semitic languages of the north where rabb means “much, great”. — In one of the oldest sūras (cvi. 3) Allāh is called the “lord of the temple”. Similarly al-Lāt bore the epithet al-Rabba, especially at Ṭāʾif where she wa…

, the palladium of Islām, situated almost in the centre of the great mosque in Mecca. I. The Kaʿba and its immediate neighbourhood.…

(a.), infintive V of s̲h̲-h-d, the recitation of the s̲h̲ahāda [q.v.], especially in the ṣalāt. It must, however, be kept in mind that in this case s̲h̲ahāda comprises not only the kalimatāni, but l°. the following formula: “To Allāh belong the blessed salutations and …

Abū ʿAbd al-Raḥmān Aḥmad b. S̲h̲uʿaib b. ʿAlī b. Baḥr b. Sinān, author of one of the six canonical collections of traditions [cf. ḥadīt̲h̲], d. 303 (915). Very little is known about him. He is said to have made extensive travels in order to hear traditions, to have settled in Egypt, afterwards in Damascus, and to h…

(a.), the pilgrimage to Mecca, ʿArafāt and Minā, the last of the five “pillars” of Islām. I. The islāmic Ḥad̲j̲d̲j̲. a. The journey to Mecca. According to the law every adult Muslim, of either sex, has to perform the Ḥad̲j̲d̲j̲ at least once in the course of his life, provided he is able to do so (cf. Sūra iii. 91). The fulfilment of the last proviso depends on various circumstances. Lunatics and slaves are exempted from the obligation; likewise women who have not a husband or a relative ( …

(P.), master, teacher, artisan. This word has passed into Arabic, with the plural ostād̲h̲ūn, asātid̲h̲a. It also means eunuch, musician, merchant’s ledger, in the modern language particularly teacher. Combined with dār the form ostādār, “master of the house”, major-domo, was applied to one of the great dignitaries of the Mamlūk sulṭāns [q. v.]. We also find the abbreviated forms ostā, osṭā, ōsṭā, plural ostawāt, osṭawāt, ōstawāt, which in Cairo is applied to coachmen. (A. J. Wensinck) Bibliography the lexicons of Vullers, Lane, Dozy C. A. Nallino, Varabo parlato in Egitto, second ed., Milan 1913, p. 185—186.

(a.), the recommendation, or permission to perform the ritual ablution with sand instead of water in certain cases, is based on two passages in the Ḳurʾān, Sūra iv. 46 and v. 9. The latter passage runs as follows: “And if ye be impure, wash yourselves. But if ye be sick, or on a journey or if ye come from the privy or ye have touched women and ye find no water, take fine clean sand and rub your faces and hands with it. Allāh will not put a difficulty upon you but He will make you pure and comple…

(a.). According to some Arabie lexicographers the meaning of this term is time of birth in contra-distinction to mawlid which may denote also “place of birth”. The latter is the usual term for birthday, especially in connection with the birthday of Muḥammad and Muslim saints [cf. the art. mawlid]; mīlād denotes also Christmas. For other special meanings cf. Dozy, Supplément aux dictionnaires arabes, s. v. …

(a.), infinitive III of ḳāsa, deduction by analogy. The term is used with a multitude of meanings; cf. the lexicons, especially Dozy, Supplément, s. v. Here we shall confine ourselves to ḳiyās as one of the “roots” of the fiḳh, i. e. the deduction of legal prescriptions from the Ḳurʾān and the sunna by reasoning by analogy. — The death of Muḥammad depriv…

(a.), etymologically: what is apparent to the eye, as a technical term: text. In this sense the word does not occur in the Ḳurʾān nor in the Ḥadīt̲h̲. Al-S̲h̲āfiʿī, on the other hand, appears to be acquainted with it. In his Risāla he uses it chiefly in the sense of naṣṣu kitābin (p. 7, 16, 30, 41) or naṣṣu ḥukmin (p. 5) “what has been laid down in the Ḳurʾān”. In other passages naṣṣ al-kitāb is distinguished from sunna (p. 21, 4, infra, 24, 7, paen., 30, 21, 63, 31). The combination naṣṣ sunna occurs, however, also (p. 50, 14, 66, 2). From these passages it may also appear that al-S̲h̲…

(the forms Yaʾd̲j̲ūd̲j̲ and Maʾd̲j̲ūd̲j̲ occur also), Gog and Magog (cf. Gen. x. 2; Ez. xxxviii., xxxix), two peoples who belong to the outstanding figures of Biblical and Muslim eschatology. Magog in Gen. x. is reckoned among the offspring of Japheth; this notion is also found in Arabic sources (e. g. Baiḍāwī on sūra xviii. 93, where also different traditions are mentioned); this much only may be said here, that the Bible as well the Arabic sources connect these people…

(a.), Ethiopie loanword (cf. Nöldeke, Neue Beilräge, p. 49 sq.; the forms miṣḥaf and maṣḥaf occur also; According to some grammarians they are less correct, especially the latter), codex, or, according to the definition of Arabic lexicographers, leaves ( ṣuḥuf plural of ṣaḥifa), when they are bound together between two covers. In the tradition on the redaction of the Ḳurʾān [q. v.] by Hud̲h̲aifa b. al-Yamān during ʿUt̲h̲mān’s caliphate, it is said indeed, that the collect…

, i. e. lord of the faithful. ʿOmar was the first to bear this title. In the East the Umaiyad and ʿAbbāsid caliphs followed his example, as did those of their opponents who thought themselves entitled to claim the Caliphate (ʿAlids, Ḳarmaṭes, Fāṭimids). It was not till the fall of Bag̲h̲dād (656 = 1258) …

, 1. name of a fountain in Paradise, occurring in the Ḳurʾān, Sūra lxxxiii. 27, where it is said, that its water will be drunk by the muḳarrabūn, “those who are admitted to the divine presence”, and that it will be mixed with the drink of the mass of the inhabitants of Paradise. The commentaries are uncertain, whether tasnīm is a proper name — which, according to the Lisān is inconsistent with its being a diptote — or a derivative from the root s-n-m, a root conveying the meaning of “being high”. In the latter case the meaning of the verse would be: “and it (viz. the drink of …

(plur. k̲h̲aṭāyā and k̲h̲aṭīʾāt), sin, synonymous with d̲h̲anb. The root k̲h̲-ṭ-ʾ has the meaning of stumbling (in Hebrew: Proverbs, xix. 2), committing an error ( ak̲h̲ṭaʾa is said e.g. of the bowman whose arrow misses the aim); see the art. k̲h̲aṭaʾ. The definition of k̲h̲aṭīʾa is “a sin committed on purpose”; that of k̲h̲iṭʾ (see Sūra x…

occurs in the Ḳurʾān only in Sūra 89, 6: “(5) Hast thou not seen how thy Lord dealt with ʿĀd, (6) Iram d̲h̲āt al-Imād, the like whereof hath not been created in the lands”. — The connection between ʿĀd and Iram in these verses may be interpreted in various ways, as the commentaries explain at length. If Iram is taken in contrast to ʿĀd, it is intelligible why Iram also has been taken as a tribal name; Imād could then be taken in the sense of “tent-pole”. According to others, the poles are a description of the giant figure of the Iram, which is thus particularly emphasised. If Iram stands in iḍāfa to ʿĀd,…

(a., plural Ṣulub, Ṣulbān), the cross. This general meaning occurs in several special applications, e. g. to the wasm branded in the skin of camels in the form of a cross etc. In the sense of the chief Christian symbol the word may have been taken over from Aramaic where it has the same form. It does not occur in the Ḳorʾān. In Ḥadīt̲h̲ it is used in eschatological descriptions. ʿĪsā (Jesus) will reappear in the last days, combat the Antichrist (al-Dad̲j̲d̲j̲āl), kill the swine and break the cross into pieces (al-Buk̲h̲ārī, Anbiyāʾ, bāb 49; Muslim, Īmān, Trad. 242, 243; Ibn Mād̲j̲a, Fitan, bāb 3…

I On the eve of the Hid̲j̲ra. It is with the birth of Muḥammad — between 570-580 a.d. — that Mecca suddenly emerges from the shadows of the past and thrusts itself upon the attention ¶ of the historian. The geographer Ptolemy seems to know it under the name Macoraba; but it must have been in existence long before his time. Mecca was probably one of the stations on the “incense route”, the road by which the produce of the East especially valuable perfumes, came to the Mediterranean world. It owes its importance to its position at the Intersection of great commercial routes. The town that had …