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[German Version] I. History of the Discipline – II. Church History I. History of the Discipline Geography has come a long way from its beginnings in the mythical worldview (ANE creation accounts, early Greek philosophical speculation) and in the pragmatic exploration of the world (travel reports of merchants) to its development as an exact science. In antiquity, it was understood as a comprehensive lore of the earth and its inhabitants. The earliest accounts took the form of descriptions of coasts (Periplus et al.), which were soon joined by geographic and ethnographic excu…

[German Version] A lay abbot in the narrow sense, is a layman who is entrusted with the conduct and use of a monastery without being a member of its convent or even a monk. In the Frankish Empire of the 9th and 10th centuries and its successor states, members of the nobility were particularly frequently vested with this function. In a secondary meaning, lay abbot also designates the clerical holder of a commendam, who does not have the status of a monk (frequent from the High Middle Ages to the early modern period). Ulrich Köpf Bibliography F.J. Felten, Äbte und Laienäbte im Frankenreich, 1980.

[German Version] (Oct 19, 1433, Figline Valdarno, Italy – Oct 1, 1499, Careggi, Italy). Ficino was the son of the personal physician of Cosimo de' Medici; the latter supported Ficino and prompted him to change his course of studies from medicine to philosophy. He acquired an extremely thorough knowledge of Greek and produced annotated translations of esp. Plato (1463–1469), Plotinus (1484–1486), and a series of other neo-Platonic authors. In Florence he founded a Platonic Academy (I, 5) in which h…

[German Version] The principality of Liechtenstein is a microstate (160 km2) between the Swiss cantons of Sankt Gallen and Grisons (Graubünden) to the west and the Austrian state of Vorarlberg to the east. It is a hereditary constitutional monarchy with a population of 35,300 (2007), 80% Catholic, 7.4% Protestant (1996). Rulers of Liechtenstein are first mentioned in the 12th century, with two lines possessing lands in Styria and Moravia. When the Styrian line died out in 1619, the Moravian lord of Nikols…

[English Version] I. Religionsgeschichtlich 1. griech. Φυ´σις/Phy´sis (Ph.) als Abstraktpersonifikation und wirkende göttliche Kraft, ohne speziellen Zuständigkeitsbereich, ohne eigenen Kult und bes. Ikonographie (zwei Ausnahmen: Votivrelief des Archelaos von Priene [sog. »Apotheose des Homer«; um 130–120 v.Chr.] und Mosaik von Merida [2.Jh. n.Chr.]: »N.« (N.) zw. Himmel, Meer, Euphrat, Nil, Tellus u.a.). 2. In der vorsokratischen Naturphilosophie (s.a. Natur) kann Ph. personifiziert und als göttliche Macht gedacht werden (vgl. Heraklit [DK 22 B…

[English Version] I. Archäologisch S. sind im AO seit dem präkeramischen Neolithikum (um 7000 v.Chr.) bezeugt, zuerst als einfache, runde oder ovale Platten oder als Tierfigur gestaltete Stempel, ab dem späten 4.Jt. (Susa, Uruk) auch walzenförmig als sog. Roll- oder Zylindersiegel (Guter Hirte: I., s. dort Abb.). Letztere hielten sich bis zur Zeitenwende, sind aber auch in Ägypten und im östlichen Mittelmeerraum belegt. In Kulturen mit Papyrus oder Leder als gebräuchlichsten Schriftträgern bevorzug…

[German Version] I. General Facts – II. Christianity I. General Facts Lying west of Great Britain in the North Atlantic, Ireland belongs to the British Isles and covers an area of 84,421 km2. Its (esp. in the west) strongly cleft coastline has a total length of 3,173 km. Numerous small offshore islands and reefs played an important role in the history of Ireland as places of refuge, bridgeheads, and the like. The island's interior is relatively flat with a general altitude of approx. 60–120 m above sea level. Mountains, whic…

[German Version] I. Religious Studies 1. The Greek Φύσις/ Phýsis is an abstract personification and an effective divine power. It is not restricted to any particular area of responsibility, and has no cult of its own or special iconography, with two exceptions: the votive relief of Archelaus of Priene (so-called “Apotheosis of Homer,” c. 120–130 bce), and the mosaic of Merida (2nd cent. ce; natura is between heaven, the sea, the Euphrates, the Nile, Tellus etc.). 2. In pre-Socratic natural philosophy (see also Nature), Physis may be personified and thought of as divine power (…

[German Version] I. Archaeology Seals are attested in the ancient Near East since the pre-pottery Neolithic (c. 7000 bce), initially in the form of simple round or oval disks or theriomorphic stamps. Beginning in the late 4th millennium (Susa, Uruk), we also find cylinder seals (Good Shepherd: I, fig.). The latter were in use until the end of the first millennium bce, but they are also found in Egypt and the eastern Mediterranean region. In cultures where papyrus or leather was the commonest writing material, smaller stamp seals were preferred. In Egypt c. 2300 bce, carved stamp seals ca…

[German Version] I. Life – II. Church Historian – III. Systematic Theologian Jul 6, 1912, Berlin-Steglitz – Sep 30, 2001, Zollikerberg/Zürich), Protestant German theologian. I. Life Ebeling began his theological studies in 1930; after studying at Marburg, Berlin, and Zürich, he passed his first theological examination for the examination office of the Confessing Church in Berlin. He prepared for pastoral ministry under …

[English Version] I. SoziologischS. sind nach landläufiger Vorstellung v.a. eine dichte und heterogene Ansammlung von Gebäuden unterschiedlicher Nutzung, versehen mit spezifischen Rechten und immer auch Marktort. Im Verständnis der »eur. S.« ist sie v.a. aber auch die Arena der Stadtgesellschaft. Die Soziologie betrachtet die Entwicklung städtischer Gesellschaften seit etwa 150 Jahren, weil S. Orte wirtschaftlichen Wachstums, sozialer Vielfalt, gesellschaftlicher Innovationen und von Konflikten au…

[English Version] I. Geschichtlich 1.  Mittelalter und Reformation Die bis heute wichtigste Institution wiss. Bildung und Forschung ist eine Schöpfung des ma. Abendlands. Ihre Entstehung bedeutete einen tiefen Einschnitt in der Gesch. der Wissenschaft, bes. auch in der Theologiegeschichte. Die bis ins 12.Jh. hinein herrschende Vielfalt an Institutionen der Wissensgewinnung und -vermittlung (Klöster, Domschulen, Stiftsschulen, Schulen freier Lehrer) wurde zusammengefaßt, der Reichtum ihrer Arbeitswe…

[English Version] I. Neues Testament 1.  Nachfolge Jesu in den Evangelien Ein wichtiger Aspekt der Darstellung des Wirkens Jesu in den Evv. ist sein Ruf zur N. Dieser Ruf ergeht bedingungslos und fordert unmittelbare Entscheidung. Wenn die Jünger Jesu Einladung, ihm zu folgen, vernehmen, gehorchen sie sofort und folgen ihm (α᾿κολουϑει˜n̆/akolouthei´n; Mk 1,16–20 parr.; 2,13–14 parr.; vgl. Lk 5,1–11; Joh 1,35–51). Andere verkennen jedoch den bedingungslosen und unmittelbaren Charakter seines Rufes und verpassen so die Gelegenheit, Jesus zu folg…

[German Version] I. History 1. Middle Ages and Reformation. The university, the most important academic institution devoted to teach-¶ ing (Education/Formation) and research today, is a creation of the medieval West. Its appearance marked a deep caesura in the history of Western science, especially in the history of theology (Theology, History/Historiography of). The multiplicity of institutions involved in acquiring and transmitting knowledge (monasteries, cathedral schools, monastery schools, schools run by inde…

[German Version] I. Judaism – II. Christianity – III. Islam I. Judaism Talmudic tradition includes several examples of disputations between Jewish scholars and pagan philosophers or Roman emperors, dealing mainly with the questions of divine unity, the creation and the role of Israel ( b. Sanh. 91a–b; ' Abod. Zar. 10a–11a, etc.). Disputations with representatives of Islam and, especially, of the Christian religion became a central subject in the historical and apologetical literature (…

[German Version] I. Sociology The popular idea of a town or city is primarily a densely populated and heterogeneous collection of buildings having various uses, provided with specific rights, and always having a market place. The “European city” is however principally understood as being also the arena of city society. Sociology has studied the development of urban societies for about 150 years, because towns are places of close-knit economic growth, social diversity, and innovations and conflicts. To modern sociology the town was simply the laboratory of society. Today in Europe …

[German Version] I. New Testament – II. Church History – III. Dogmatics I. New Testament 1. General: The Greek word αἷμα ( haîma, “blood”) first of all denotes the blood of humans (Mark 5:25; John 19:34) as well as of animals (Heb 9:7, 18–25). Apart from flesh (σάρξ / sárx) blood constitutes a major component of the human body. Thus the expression “flesh and blood” designates the human (Matt 16:17; 1 Cor 15:50; Gal 1:16; Eph 6:12). The blood is the origin (John 1:13), the locus of life (Matt 27:4; Lev 17:11; Wis 7:2; Jub. 6:7; Philo Spec. IV 122f.), the psyche (“…

[German Version] I. Western Hagiography – II. Eastern Hagiography – III. Medieval and Modern Judaism I. Western Hagiography Western hagiography, as a literature that has no scholarly purpose but serves to venerate saints, first followed Greek examples. Its most important genre, the lives of the saints, is shaped less by the panegyric biography of the martyr bishop Cyprian of Carthage, written by the deacon Pontius (2nd half of 3rd cent. ce), than by the vitaes of the desert father Anthony of Padua, written by Athanasius (with two Latin translations), and of Martin …

[German Version] I. New Testament – II. Church History – III. Ethics I. New Testament 1. Discipleship of Jesus in the Gospels An important aspect of the description of Jesus' activity in the Gospels is his call to discipleship. This call is issued unconditionally and requires an immediate decision. When the disciples hear Jesus' invitation to follow him, they obey at once and follow him (ἀκολουϑεῖν/ akoloutheín; Mark 1:16–20 parr.; 2:13–14 parr.; cf. Luke 5:1–11; John 1:35–51). Others, however,…

[German Version] I. Earliest Christianity According to CIJ 2, 1266 and passim, religious teachers known as διδάσκαλος/ didáskalos or רב/ rab (addressed as: διδάσκαλε/ didáskale; רבי/ rabbi; rabbi) existed in Palestine prior to 70 ce (Zimmermann). All four Gospels portray Jesus as a teacher with a circle of disciples who were also responsible for the preservation of his teaching. Q (Logia/Sayings Source/Q), furthermore, emphasizes the teacher’s superiority over the disciple (Luke 6:40 par.). Mark has Jesus being addressed as a διδάσκαλε or ῥαββί/ rhabbí who, in a singular show …