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1. Definition and historyMimesis (“[imitative] representation”) is a crucial, but polyvalent concept in literary theory, art theory, and other fields, the meaning of which has changed much through the course of history and remains controversial to this day. An extremely fluid spectrum of connotations was already in place in Greek antiquity. Mimesis (Greek mímēsis) is derived from  mímos (“mime”), and in the fifth-century BCE it meant portraying something in such a way as to resemble something else. Plato first gave it an aesthetic, although distinctly double-edged meaning [5. 1…

1. Concept Illusionism relies on an intentional effect of deceiving the senses in a work of art. The illusion is usually based on tricking the sense of vision by means of precise naturalistic imitation and perspective techniques. The aim is to elicit momentary confusion between art and reality in the viewer. The illusion is not intended to be lasting, but to elicit an ensuing revelation that the seen effect is a work of art [5]; [6]. Artists also use illusionism to demonstrate that they are capable of surpassing nature by conjuring an appearance of reality.An ancient artist anecdote on …

1. ConceptIn Italian art, disegno (“design”; French  dessin) from the early Renaissance already meant more than just “drawing”. Artistic expertise in practice and theory combined in the concept of disegno to found a concept of artistic creativity. Disegno refers on the one hand to the drawing, from the first strokes of the pen in the draft stage to the pictorial final drawing - in other words, the process of demonstrating one's ability and invention by preparing a piece of work. On the other hand the term also denotes the imagi…

1. Ancient conceptIn sculpture and painting, contrapposto denotes an attitude motif of the human figure consisting of a particular ponderation. Ponderation is the distribution and attitude of the limbs and the body weight either stationary or in motion. It may be static and balanced about a vertical core of the attitude depicted (e.g. standing straight), or it may be displaced radically away from the center of gravity (e.g. in dynamic motion that displaces the upper body). Contrapposto is thus a motif of attitude in the standing figure, connoting as it were motion in stillness.In …

1. ConceptMultiple views (French  multiplicité des points de vue, Italian  molte vedute, German  Vielansichtigkeit) is a category of evaluation in the field of sculpture. As a criterion of aspect (Latin aspectus, “view”), the analysis of multiple views serves to establish principles of composition in freestanding statues and sculptures against walls (e.g. niche statues, reliefs, tombs) by distinguishing between frontal view and multiple views in the main and side aspects. In art theory, multiple views were considered under …

1. Definition and terminological historyWith free sculpture or “sculpture in the round,” the relief is one of the two main genres of sculpture (Sculpture [subtractive]). Reliefs are bodies or formal structures in a composition (e.g. figures, landscapes, ornaments) – in any of the materials used in subtractive or additive sculpture (Sculpture [modeling]) – that project out of a flat, concave, or round surface. In subtractive sculpture (e.g. in stone or wood), it is the material that determines the he…

1. Concept and periodizationThe epoch term “Rococo” (French rococo; German  Rokoko), as customarily used in art history, covers the period between around 1715/1730 and 1770/1780, dominated by a European cultural and stylistic phenomenon that spread from France and manifested itself mostly in art, crafts, and architecture, though to some extent also in literature (Galant literature; Anacreontics; Pastoral poetry; Idyll). It is much more difficult, however, to apply the term or define the phenomenon in the…

1. IntroductionMannerism in art, literature, and music is generally defined as the characteristic of a self-consciously elaborate or artificial style, and in art history in particular as an epoch located between the Renaissance and the Baroque. The term was coined in art studies in the late 18th century as a derivative of  “manner” (see below, 2.1.). In this context, it refers to a period between around 1520/30 and 1590/1600, a phase supposedly displaying symptoms of decadence in art and architec…

1. The word Even an approximate definition of the term grotesque is already distinguished by its etymology: the root word is Italian grotta/ grotte, from which the word grottesche was derived toward the end of the 15th century (first appearance 1495; on the word’s semantic development, see 2. below). In the 16th century, it entered all the major European languages as a loanword (French crotesque and grotesque, Eng. grotesque, Span. grutesco, Dutch Gottisen, Ger. Groteske and Krotteschisch) [4]; [5]. In all languages, generally speaking, the word’s definition is to this da…

1. ConceptThe plastic (from the Greek  plassein/ plattein, “to form,” and  plastikos, “malleable”; Latin  plasticus) art of sculpture by modeling (Sculpture, techniques of) involves making works from malleable (clay, wax, papier maché, stucco, plaster of Paris) or castable materials (metals and other malleable materials that can be made by processes of casting and pouring, e.g. concrete or porcelain). Sculpture by modeling, which builds up material, contrasts with subtractive sculpture, which removes it (e.g.…

1. Concept and roleThe term “portrait” (French  portrait; German Porträt; Italian  ritratto; Spanish  retrato) is derived from the Latin protrahere (to draw forth; to produce). German also still uses the synonymous Bildnis, but Konterfei has become archaic (from the Latin  contra facere, “set in opposition/contrast,” and French  contrefaire, “imitate”; see Contrafaction). The  Sketchbook of Villard de Honnecourt (c. 1230) already contains the terms  portrait and contrefais al vif, but Villard uses them to assert fidelity to nature [7. 59–61].During the early moder…

1. History 0-1.1. ConceptThe Greek word epochḗ (“suspension, pause”) in everyday speech in Antiquity meant a lull in a speech or a movement, in astronomy the conjunction of two celestial bodies, and in philosophy the suspension of judgment (Skepticism). In the early modern period, the latter two senses were at first dominant. The term only gradually took on a historical sense. As it did so, even until the 18th century, it did not denote a particular span of time, but the event that heralded one. Even …

1. Etymology and definitionThe word physiognomy (German Physiognomik, Middle English  fisnomy) is derived from Greek  physiognomonikḗ téchne; it means the art of perceiving the total nature of a person’s body from outward signs (literally “perception according to nature”). While physiognomics is more concerned with the narrower field of corporeal signs, physiognomy as it developed in the late Middle Ages and early modern period should be understood as a comprehensive theory of the correlation of all natural things. That said, there is no generally accepted usage even today.P…

1. Literature 1.1. DefinitionEver since the term first arose, in Greek antiquity (Greek:  parōdίa, “parallel/side song”; French  parodie; German  Parodie), its meaning in the various European literatures has diverged, both in regard to the particular relationship of the parody to the original (affirmative, playful, critical) and in comparison with related writing strategies (travesty; burlesque; mock-epic; pastiche;  Kontrafaktur [contrafaction], etc.). Until the early modern period, the word tended to be used in the context of a non-polemical concept of  imitatio and …

1. Thematic foci and key articlesIt was only in the late 18th and early 19th centuries that the collective singular “art” coalesced into an umbrella term for all artistic creations that appeared in the field of “art history” in the emergent scientific and scholarly system. Such a complex, refined concept of art did not exist in the early modern period. Classical terms like the Greek  téchne and the Latin  ars were understood in a more general sense as artistic ability or technical skill, that is, the capacity to make things in dealings with working techniques …

1. Concept The term iconography derives from the Greek ei kṓn (“image”) and  gráphein (“to write”, “to describe”) and denotes the study of the content of images. However, this sense was acquired in the discipline of art history only in the 19th century. In general, iconography is concerned with all objects, forms, and designs in representations insofar as they comprise a system of signs that can express social, historical, religious, or aesthetic conditions or ideas. Insofar as iconography helps to explain w…

1. TerminologyThe connotations of the term classicism differ among the European nations. In Germany, Klassizismus refers to the epoch in European art from around 1760 to around 1830, an era known in France, Italy, and Britain as neoclassicism, because in those countries it was preceded by national constructs of the European classics and classicism. In literature, the term classicism was first used in the 19th century to denote the comparability of a literary period with Antiquity (Italin  classicismo, 1818; German Klassizismus, 1820; French classicisme, 1823; English classi…

The Latin term idea has perevaded the history of philosophical thought since Plato [2]; [4] (see Idealism). In early modern aesthetics (Art theory), the concept of the idea in the sense of self-reflection on artistic creativity was discussed to secure the intellectual status of the fine arts – and thus of the artist as well. In this context,  idea (German  Idee, French  idée) referred to all genres of art; in the creative process that led to a work of art, it denoted the idea of the beautiful formed in the mind, which manifests itself as an inspira…

1. ConceptThe aesthetic criteria of the unfinished derive from Italian Renaissance art theory. The key conceptual pair is the Italian perfezione/imperfezione, which was only revised into  finito/ non-finito (“finished”/“unfinished”) in modern usage [4]. The concept of the unfinished always corresponds with that of completion or perfection, aesthetically reflected in the relationship between art and nature. The degree of unfinishedness is measured according to the definition of the complete. During the 16th century, the semant…

1. Materials and techniquesStucco (Italian  stucco, French  stuc, German  Stuck) is a malleable design material that offers almost unlimited applications, often associated with architecture on building exteriors and interiors, but also frequently with free-standing molded additive sculptures of objects or figures (Sculpture, techniques of 3.3.; Sculpture [modeling]) and in ornaments for room decoration (stucco ceilings; see Ceiling painting). Stucco was already widely used in classical antiquity (Latin  tectorium, albarium opus), according to Vitruvius ( De architec…