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(a.), military organisation, the system of military rule in modern Islamic lands (for a consideration of military organisation before ca. 1900, see d̲j̲ays̲h̲ ; Ḥarb ; istiʿrāḍ ). 1. In the modern Arab world 2. In modern Iran 3. In the late Ottoman Empire and the Turkish Republic 4. In Pakistan 1. In the modern Arab world. The frequent appearance of military régimes in the Arab sector of the Muslim world during the second part of the 20th century owes less to a tradition of interaction between military conquest and the diffusion of Islam than to the h…

, Sayyid Ḍiyāʾ al-Dīn , Persian statesman (1888-1969). He was born in Yazd into a conservative, clerical family, and spent much of his childhood and youth in S̲h̲īrāz, where he received a traditional education, and then embarked upon a career in journalism, editing a pro-constitutional newspaper, the Nidā-yi Islām . He moved to Tehran where he continued his work as a journalist, editing the newspaper Raʿd . In Tehran, Sayyid Ḍiyāʾ’s reputation as a reformer grew and he became the centre of a group of like minded individuals. He also assiduously cultivated the c…

, Nad̲j̲af Ḳulī Ḵh̲ān, a Bak̲h̲tiyārī chief born about 1846. His father was Ḥusayn Ḳulī Ḵh̲ān, more commonly known as Īlk̲h̲ānī, the first Bak̲h̲tiyārī leader to be formally designated Īlk̲h̲ān of all the Bak̲h̲tiyārī by the imperial government in Tehran, and who was poisoned on the orders of prince Ẓill al-Sulṭān, the famous governor-general of Iṣfāhān, who feared his growing power. Ṣamṣām al-Salṭana was Īlbeg of the Bak̲h̲tiyārī in 1903-5 and later Īlk̲h̲ān. He is remembered principally for the part he played as one of the leaders of the Bak̲h̲tiyārī intervention …