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[German version] (γύψ/ gýps; Lat. voltur or vultur, voltur[i]us, derived from vellere, to pluck, or of Etruscan origin). Aristotle knows only the small, light-coloured Egyptian vulture ( Neophron percnopterus), as well as the significantly larger and ash-gray monk vulture (Aegypius monachus) (Hist. an. 7(8),3,592b 6-8). In his writings, however, Αἰγυπιός ( aigypiós) refers to the lammergeier or bearded vulture (Aristot. Hist. an. 8(9),1,610a 1), which is related both to the eagle and to the vulture (Ail. nat. 2,46). The perknópteros (Hist. an. 8(9),32,618b 31-619a 3) with …

[German version] ἀσφόδελος ( asphódelos) is said to refer to that of the seven white- and pink-flowering species of the Liliaceae genus Asphodelus most frequent around the Mediterranean, Asphodelos microcarpus, which has been mentioned since Homer (Od. 11,539. 573; 24,13) and Hesiod (Op. 41) among others as native to the meadows of the earth and the underworld [1. 68 and fig. 108-111]. With reference to Greek authors, Dioscorides 2,169 ([2. 1. 234ff.] = 2,199 [3. 245f.]) and Plin. HN 22,67-72 praise it as a medicinal plant of manifold use. The albucus of Plin. HN 21,109 has been…

(Φαίαξ; Phaíax). [German version] [1] Ancestor of the Phaeaces Mythical ancestor of the Phaeaces, father of Alcinous [1] and Locrus [3] (Diod. Sic. 4,72,2; differenly: Hom. Od. 7,54ff.; Nausithous [1]). Käppel, Lutz (Kiel) [German version] [2] Mythical naval officer of Theseus Mythical naval officer of Theseus, together with Nausithous [3] (Plut. Theseus 17). Käppel, Lutz (Kiel) Bibliography Deubner, 225. [German version] [3] Athenian politician, 5th cent. BC Athenian, son of Eresistratus, Acharnian (Aeschin. 3,138; ostraka [3. 78 no. 152]); from a prominent fa…

[German version] (derived from Latin lens, lentis or lenticula; Greek φακός/ phakós), Ervum lens L., a pulse cultivated for millennia, especially in Egypt (two species in Plin. HN 18,123). For their mush (φακῆ/ phakê) Esau sacrificed his right as the firstborn (Gn 25:34). Among the Greeks, Solon fr. 26,3 and Hdt. 4,17 (cultivation among the Scythes) are the first to mention lentils. In Aristoph. (e.g. Equ. 1002 and Vesp. 811) as well as in Ath. 4,158a-d the lentils dish is the meal of the poor. Theophrastus (Hist. pl. 2,4,2 and…

[German version] (Ἀργεστής; Argestḗs). The north-west wind, e.g. in Aristot. Mete. 2,6,364a 14, that is set on the astronomical wind rose as the middle wind between the north and west (ζέφυρος; zéphyros) winds at the sunset point of the summer solstice. It was considered to be strong, cool, clearing and dry. Other names: Skiron in Attica, among the Greeks sailing to Sicily Iapyx and on the Italian west coast Κερκίας ( Kerkías). In Plin. HN 2,119, Vitr. De arch. 1,6,1 and Sen. Q. Nat. 5,16,5 it is called Corus. Aristot. Ανέμων θέσεις ( Anémōn théseis), 973b 13-15 cites for the Ἰάπυξ ( Iápyx) the …

[German version] (σάπφειρος/ sáppheiros, Latin sapp(h)irus). A precious stone, identical not with our modern sapphire, but with the speckled lapis lazuli (Theophr. 8; 23 and 37 Eichholz; Plin. HN 33,68 and 161; 37,119 f.), which was introduced from Egypt by the Greeks. It was not until the 3rd cent. AD onwards that it was used by the Romans for jewellery or amulets. Hünemörder, Christian (Hamburg) Bibliography 1 D. E. Eichholz (ed.), Theophrastus De lapidibus, 1965.

[German version] (Greek ὀστρακόδερμα/ ostrakóderma) or crustaceans. They partly correspond with today's phylum of the Echinodermata, i.e. the marine feather stars, starfishes and brittle stars, the  sea urchins and sea cucumbers. Aristotle who gave them the name and lists in Hist. an. 1,6,490b10 the phylum as that of the  shells ( óstrea), does however also include the  sponges (modern phylum Porifera), sea anemones (modern class Anthozoa of the phylum jellyfish, Cnidaria), sea squirts ( ascidia, modern class of sea squirts, tunicates), and the marine and land snails …

[German version] For the most part, the names ἔλαφος/ élaphos (from Hom. Il. 11,475 and passim) or cervus (= horned animal, from Plaut. Poen. 530) and νεβρός/ nebrós (deer-calf, Hom. Il. 8,248; Od. 19,228: ἑλλός/ hellós) or inuleus (Hor. Carm. 1,23,1; Prop. 3,13,35) refer to the red deer, Cervus elaphus L. The smaller fallow deer (or the roe?), Dama dama (L.) (Hom. Od. 17,295: πρόξ/ próx), Lat. dama (confused with the  gazelle!), with its palmate antlers was introduced into Greece and to some extent Italy from Asia (reference: Arr. Anab. 7,20,4: herds on the es…

[German version] (πιστάκη/ pistákē from the Aramaic fustaqā, Arabic fustuq; Lat. pistacia). The fruit-tree Pistacia vera, of the family Anacardiaceae, originated in Mesopotamia and Syria, and produces flavoursome drupes (πιστάκια/ pistákia). The pistachio became known to the Greeks through the conquests of Alexander [4] the Great. Theophr. Hist. pl. 4,4,7 mentions it as being similar to the 'terebinth' (τέρμινθον/ términthon) - still unnamed - which grew in Bactria. According to Plin. HN 15,91, L. Vitellius introduced it to Italy from Syria in AD 35 under Tiberius, and the eques Po…

[German version] (Latin Septentrio). Later name for the north wind on the wind rose, in Vitr. De arch. 1,6 etc. formed according to the northern constellation, the Great Bear (ἀπὸ τῶν τῆς ἄρκτου τόπων; apò tôn tês árktou tópōn). It was characterized as cold, strong, driving away clouds and so brightening, dry, healthy but also as bringing thunderstorms and hail. In Aristot. Mete. 2,6,364a 13-15 it is regarded as one of the north winds (Βόρεια; Bóreia) along with the Thrascias and Meses. Hünemörder, Christian (Hamburg) Bibliography K. Nielsen, Les noms grecs et latins des vents, i…

[German version] (ἀμμωνιακόν; ammōniakón). According to Dioscorides 3,84 [1.2.100 ff.] = 3,88 [2.322 f.], name for a plant gum resin (cf. Plin. HN 12,107) of the umbellate plant Ferula tingitana L. from Libya that is said to have warming, antispasmodic and even abortive powers. In other authors it is also a rock salt from the same region with astringent and purifying effects. Hünemörder, Christian (Hamburg) Bibliography 1 M. Wellmann (ed.), Pedanii Dioscuridis de materia medica vol. 2, 1906 repr. 1958 2 J. Berendes (ed.), Des Pedanios Dioskurides Arzneimittellehre, tran…

[German version] (κόκκυξ/ kókkyx, since Hes. Op. 486; Suda s.v. κοῦκκος/ koûkkos, Lat. cucul(l)us first at Plaut. Trin. 245, then at Plin. HN 18,249; 28,156 and 30,85; coccyx: Plin. HN 10,25), the well-known brood parasite and migratory bird that appears early in Greece (Dionysius, Ixeutika 1,13, [1. 11]). The cry that gives rise to its name (verb: κοκκύζειν/ kokkýzein, Hes. loc. cit.) was just as striking as its practise of depositing an egg (rarely are there two) in the nests of various small birds (in Aristot. Hist. an. 6,7,564a 2 the ὑπολαΐς/ hypolaḯs, probably a warbler). Aristot…

[German version] I. Early History In the Early Holocene, the Asian elephant, Elephas maximus, was common from central China to the Syrian Mediterranean coast. Written sources, representations, and, in particular, bones found in the excavations of settlements, indicate that some survived along the Syrian rivers into the 7th/8th cents. BC. Today their habitat is restricted to parts of southern Asia. Because of their physical strength and intelligence, Asian elephants were trained as working animals without act…

[German version] Of the Salmonidae family, Antiquity was familiar with: 1. the salmon proper, Salmo salar L., as ἴσοξ/ ísox ( isox Isid. Orig. 20,2,30), mentioned in Plin. HN 9,44 for the Rhine and Sulp. Sev. Dialogi 2,10,4 for the Liger (Loire). Auson. Mos. 97-105 describes it accurately; 2. the sea trout, Salmo trutta trutta, as fario (Auson. Mos. 128-130 and Isid. Orig. 12,6,6: varii) or salmo marinus (Plin. HN 9,68, but according to [1. 119] no. 1); 3. the brown trout, Salmo trutta fario, may be meant by salmo fluviatilis (Plin. HN 9,68) in Aquitania. Auson. Mos. 88 characterizes the sala…

[German version] Not distinguished by the Greeks as a sub-order with their own collective name from other shelled molluscs (κογχύλια/ konchýlia, Latin conchylia or conchae). Aristotle (Hist. an. 4,4,528a 11-13), however, contrasts SAS with bivalve (δίθυρα/ díthyra) ὀστρακόδερμα/ ostrakóderma (Mussels) as μονόθυρα/ monóthyra. Many species did have their own names: 1. The sea-snail κῆρυξ/ kêryx, Latin bucinum, commonly Triton's trumpet or trumpet shell,  Tritonium nodiferum Lam. Aristotle describes its bodily parts (Hist. an. 4,4,528a 1-11; 528a 33-b 13; 528b …

[German version] ( unionum conchae). The pearl oyster ( concha, Plin. HN 9,106; cf. Shells D. 3.), imported from India (Plin. HN 9,106), provided the valuable pearl (μαργαρίτης/ margarítēs, margarita), but its shell covered with the same substance was scarcely used. We know only that Nero (Suet. Nero 31) had the walls in his palace in Rome, the domus aurea -- still partially traceable -- decorated with mother-of-pearl. Hünemörder, Christian (Hamburg) Bibliography A. Schramm, s.v. P., RE 19, 867  Blümner, Techn. 22, 380.

[German version] (Late Antiquity verbena; Greek ἱερὰ βοτάνη/ hierà botánē, 'sacred herb', or περιστερεών/ peristereṓn, 'dove herb'), the Common Vervain ( Verbena officinalis L.) in the Verbenaceae family. It grows as a herbaceous plant, chiefly on walls and paths, and has small purple flowers on branched panicles. The modern scientific name indicates its great medicinal significance, primarily as an astringent for haemorrhage, fever, headaches and hyperhidrosis (Dioscorides 4,59 f. Wellmann = 4,60 f. Berendes;  cf. Plin.  HN 25,105 f.). Among the Romans, verbenaca was used…

[German version] (ἄσβεστος; ásbestos), according to [1. 171] in Dioscorides 5,115 [2. 85f.] = 5,132 [3. 539] the name for burnt lime, also λίθος ἀμίαντος, or, according to the main site of discovery, Καρύστιος, is the well known fibrous variety of the hornblende that, being fire-resistant, was made into fabrics and lamp-wicks. According to Plin. HN 19,19f. this supposed species of flax from India was very precious; according to Dioscorides 5,138 [2. 99] = 5,155 [3. 550] the amiantus stone from Cypr…

[German version] Γέρανος ( géranos), Lat. grus or gruis refers to the common crane ( Grus grus), but grus Balearica in Plin. HN 11,122 refers to the demoiselle crane ( Grus virgo [1. 131f.]; also, cf. 10,135 grues minores or vipiones). The bird's main characteristic is its long legs (Lucil. 168). Spring and autumn migrations of the crane were closely watched in the Mediterranean area since it flew over the region, but did not brood there (Hom. Il. 2,460; Aristot. Hist. an. 8(9),10,614b 18-26; Plut. Lucullus 39,5; wedge formation in C…

[German version] Classical antiquity knew only one species each from two genera of the Alaudidae family: the crested lark ( Galerida cristata L.), ἡ κόρυδος/ kórydos, κορύδαλος/ korýdalos; Latin corydalus (Marcellus, De medicamentis 29,30), galerita (Plin. HN 10,137), cassita (Gell. NA 2,29,3), Celtic alauda (Plin. HN 11,121; Marcellus, ibid. 28,50), is distinguished from the skylark ( Alauda arvensis L.), which appears in Greece only as a winter visitor, by the feather crest according to Aristot. Hist. an. 8(9),25,617b 19-23. The crested lark is the s…