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[German version] Aristotle had a knowledge of fish (ἰχθύς; ichthýs, Pl. ἰχθύες; ichthýes), the modern class of vertebrates, as a sub-group of aquatic animals (ἔνυδρα; énydra) that was almost even better than his knowledge of birds, and he provides about 133 names in the Historia animalium. Of these however many sea fish must remain unidentified. He was informed by experienced fishermen whom he questioned, for example, at the rich fish market in Athens. He clearly distinguishes the cartilagenous fish that are phosphorescent in the dark as σελάχη ( seláchē; of σέλας, sélas, ‘light’) [1.…

[German version] Insect; φθείρ/ phtheír, Latin pediculus, late Latin also tinea (Isid. Orig. 12, 5,11: vestimentorum vermis). Of the supposedly 53 species [1], only three parasites of humans are important. 1. The crab louse, Phirus pubis (L.), (φθείρ ἄγριος/ phtheir ágrios: Aristot. Hist. an. 5,31,557a 4-10; cf. Hdt. 2,37 on the shaving of body hair among the Egyptian priests), which is said to be responsible for φθειρίασις βλεφάρων/ phtheiríasis blephárōn (louse-infestation of the eyelids) (Cels. 6,6,15). 2. The clothes louse, Pediculus humanus, which likes to sit in sheep'…

[German version] The ancient term σχοῖνος ( schoînos), Latin iuncus covers today's false grasses of the Juncaceae (especially Juncus) and Cyperaceae ( Schoenus and Scirpus among others) families -- the bulrushes and club-rushes, as well as sedges. In antiquity, bulrushes were commonly used for making mats and, in the case of papyrus Cyperus papyrus ( book,  papyrus), as writing materials. The bulbous root of the Mediterranean species C. esculentus provided edible oil [1. 18]. Sweet-tasting leaves were boiled in beer and eaten (μαλιναθάλλη in Theophr. Hist. pl. 4,8,12; cf. anthaliu…

Name of a plebeian gens (cf. Tac. Ann. 6,15,1), the representatives of whom have been known historically since the middle of the 3rd cent. BC. The most important family, especially in the 1st cent. BC, are the Cassii Longini. A patrician C. (around 500 BC, C. I 19) is rare. I. Republican age [German version] [I 1] C., C. Governor of Asia 89-88 BC Praetor 90 BC (?), in 89-88 governor of the province of Asia whence he, with M'. Aquillius [I 4], induced Nicomedes of Bithynia to attack  Mithridates (MRR 2,34). He then had to retreat from the victorious Mithridat…

[German version] [1] Dish of clay or metal for meals Dish of clay or metal for meals (fish, meat, desserts). Vessel for the kitchen and cooking, for sacrificial offerings and for melting metals; identified by graffiti probably as the vessel forms Dragendorff 31 and 32 ( Clay vessels). Bowls (  acetabulum ) were also called catinus.  Terra sigillata;  Clay vessels Hurschmann, Rolf (Hamburg) Bibliography G. Hilgers, Lat. names of vessels, BJ 31. Supplement 1969, 48f., 142-144 F. Fless, Opferdiener und Kultmusiker auf stadtröm. histor. Reliefs, 1995, 19f. [German version] [2] Meltin…

[German version] The smallest species of crow. Pliny (HN 10,77) mentions this flocking bird of upper Italy, with its characteristic proverbial predilection for shiny objects like gold and coins, calling it monedula ( Coloeus monedula, probably identical to κολοιός/ koloiós, attested since Hom. Il. 16,583 and 17,755; atypical statements about the bird in Aristotle (Hist. an. 2,12,504a 19; 2,17,509a 1; 9(8),9,614b 5 and 9(8),24,b 16); common in Aristophanes ([1. 155; 2. 2. 109ff.]). In addition, Pliny knows the graculus, probably the Alpine chough ( Pyrrhocorax alpinus, κορακία…

[German version] The lily, which was already used as a decorative flower in Cretan-Mycenaean art, λείριον/ leírion - from this Latin lilium - or κρίνον/ krínon (Dioscorides; Theophr.) and κρινωνία/ krinōnía (Theophr. Hist. pl. 2,2,1). The adjective λειριόεις/ leirióeis (‘lily-like’ or ‘tender’) is used by Homer Il. 13,830 ironically for the skin of Ajax and 3,152 for the song of the cicadas, as well as Hes. Theog. 41 for that of the Muses. Persephone picks a lily (H. Hom. 2,427). Hdt. 2,92, however, calls the Egyptian Lotus krínon. In Plin. HN 21,22-26 (according to Theophr. 6,6,8…

(δελφίς/ delphís and δελφίν/ delphín, Lat. delphinus and delphin). [German version] [1] Representative of the small viviparous whale A frequent representative in the Mediterranean of the small viviparous  whale, with a spout (αὐλός; aulós), articulation of sounds, and pulmonary respiration (Aristot. Hist. an. 1,5,489a 35-b 5; 4,9,535b 32-536a 4; 8,2,589a 31-b 11 with a discussion of its role as an aquatic animal, ἔνυδρος; énydros), was admired chiefly by the Greeks as ‘king of marine animals’ (or of fishes; Ael. NA 15,17; Opp. Hal. 1,643 and 5,421 or 441). …

[German version] On this order of cartilaginous fish (σελάχη/ selách ē, σελάχια/ seláchia, χονδράκοντα/ chondrákonta,  cf. Aristot. Hist.an. 1,2, 489b 6;  Ael. NA 11,37) the sources offer no potential for tidy distinctions, only different terms. Aristotle was indeed familiar with the most important species: 1) Barbelled Hound Shark (κύων/ kýōn, γαλεὸς νεβρίας/ galeòs nebrías), 2) Common Smooth-Hound (γαλεὸς λεῖος/ galeòs leîos, Mustelus laevis), 3) Thresher Shark (ἀλωπεκίας/ alōpekías), 4) Cat Shark (σκύλλιον, scyllium), 5) Dogfish Shark (ἀκανθίας), 6) Starry Smooth…

[German version] (κεῖρις; keîris, Latin ciris) was the name of a water bird [1; 2], nowadays indeterminable, to which the poem Ciris (Ps.-Verg., v. 205 and 501ff.) attributes a white body, blueish wings, a red head and skinny red legs. Scaliger identifies it with a heron who fights the white-tailed eagle ( haliáetos?), according to Aristot. Hist. an. 8(9),1,609b 26; but in Hyg. Fab. 198, in analogy thereto, ciris is a fish pursued by the eagle [3. 144]. In mythology, the legend tells the story of Nisus (transformed into a white-tailed eagle) and his daughter S…

[German version] (ὀρίγανον/ oríganon or ὀρείγανον/ oreíganon, also ὁ/ἡ ὀρίγανος/ ho/hē oríganos, Modern Greek ρίγανη, Lat. origanum) referred to a not positively determinable species of the labiate genus origanum or marjoram. Its seed was (and still is today) a popular spice for foods which was also used with the addition of wine in decoction for medical purposes because of its warming and dissolving effects. It served (Dioscorides 3,27 Wellmann = 3,29 Berendes, cf. Plin. HN 20,175) especially as a remedy against poisoning…

[German version] (βολβός; bolbós, bulbus). Name of the underground, tuberous roots, like onions and potato tubers, of various plants, especially the Allium varieties (cf. Dioscorides 2,214ff. = 2,178-182 [2. 232-235]) (leek, πράσον), namely Allium cepa (onion, κρόμμυον), Allium scorodoprasum (garlic, σκόροδον) and Allium schoenoprasum (chives, σχοινόπρασον). The magical herb μῶλυ of the Odyssey, the leaves of which Theophr. Hist. pl. 9,15,7 compares to the σκίλλα (squill, Urginea maritima), belongs to the broadleaf Allium varieties, as also the false mandrake ( Allium vict…

[German version] The Cod. Theod. 7,15,1 mentions a ditch with a width of 4-10 m which, through aerial photographs, has been shown to be part of the African Limes secured by fortresses. Today it can best be seen near El-Kantara (Island of Djerba, Tunisia) and Gemellae (Batna, Algeria). It served not just military purposes but also to separate the cultivated land from the desert. Dating varies between Hadrian and the Four Emperors (2nd-3rd cents. AD). Hünemörder, Christian (Hamburg) Bibliography J. Baradez, Fossatum Africae, 1949.

[German version] [1] Kingfisher (Ἀλκυονίδες [ Alkyonídes] = ἀλκυόνες [ alkyónes], also ἁλκ-, therefore ‘halcyon days’), kingfisher, alcedines, colourful fish-eating coraciiformes (cf. Aristot. Hist. an. 8(9),14,616 a 14-18; Plin. HN 10,89). In Greece they were only winter guests and their brooding (at that time actually unknown) was said to take place during the calm of 14 days (ἀλκυονί(τι)δες, ἀλκυόνειοι ἡμέραι [ alkyoní(ti)des, alkyóneioi hēmérai], alcyonii dies, Alcedonia, Plur.) [1; 2] that can occur on many seas during winter solstice (as an exception! cf…

[German version] 1) Nile crocodile; Crocodilus niloticus Cuv.; first described by Hdt. 2,68 (κροκόδειλος, Egyptian also chámpsas); crocodilus, Isid. Orig. 12,6,19; Egyptian msḥ. It is about 8 m long (more than 11 m according to Ael. NA. 17,6), it has a rather short tongue (Aristot. Part. an. 2,17,660b 27-29; Plut. De Is. et Os. 75). Lifting the skull together with the immobile upper jaw in the apparent resting position gave the impression that only the upper jaw is mobile (Plin. HN 8,89; 11,159; cf. Hdt. 2,68; Aristo…

[German version] I. Geography Collective term for the central European low mountain ranges, first mentioned in Aristot. Mete. 1,13. It took nine days to cross it from north to south (Caes. B Gall. 6,25-28; interpolated according to [1]), and 60 from west to east; the forest, abundant with unknown wild beasts, extended from the borders of the Helvetii, Nemetes, and Rauraci along the Danube to the border region ( fines) of the Dacians and Anartes (further source references easily accessible through the indices in [2]). Even though the Roman occupation and discovery…

[German version] (ἐρῳδιός/ erōidiós, in MSS frequently ἐρωδιός/ erōdiós, also ἀρωδιός/ arōdiós, ῥωδιός/ rhōdiós, ἐρωγάς/ erōgás, ἐδωλιός/ edōliós; Latin ardea and ardeola) of the Ardeidae family with several species of birds. Interpretation of the erōdión (Hom. Il. 10,274) that flew past Odysseus at night as a heron is disputed today (in spite of Ael. NA 10,37). The following species are identifiable [1. 38 f.]: 1) the grey heron ( Ardea cinerea): ὁ πέλλος ἐρῳδιός/ ho péllos erōidiós (Aristot. Hist. an. 8(9),1,609b 22-25 and 8(9), 18,616b 33-617a 1 = Plin. HN 10,164: pelion); 2.) th…

[German version] [1] Sea bass Edible fish (λάβραξ/ lábrax, lupus marinus). An important edible fish, the ones from the coast of Miletus (cf. Ath. 7,311 cd) and from the Tiber near Rome were valued especially in antiquity (Hor. Sat. 2,2,31; Plin. HN 9,169; Columella 8,16,4). Aristotle mentions it several times, among others, Hist. an. 5,10,543a3f.; 543b4 or 5,11,543b11 as a fish that spawns twice in the winter (= Plin. HN 9,162) at the mouths of rivers. A more exact description is only found in Ath. 7,310e…

[German version] (ἰξία/ ixía and ἰξός/ ixós, also the name for birdlime made from mistletoe berries, and στελίς/ stelís and ὑφέαρ/ hyphéar in Greek dialects, Latin viscus or viscum). Of the two genuses in the family Loranthaceae, Theophrastus (H. plant. 3,7,6 and 3,16,19) knows as ixía only the true oak mistletoe, which is green in summer, or yellow-berried mistletoe ( Loranthus europaeus L.). As hyphéar he distinguishes from them the evergreen white or Nordic mistletoe ( Viscum album L.) with white berries, which grows parasitically primarily on apple trees and conifers …

Hünemörder, Christian (Hamburg) [German version] A. Introduction (CT) The term was introduced as early as 1663 by Schorer as Botanic oder Kräuterwissenschaft (botany or herbal science), following botanik-́e (sc. epist-́emē) and Neo-Latin botanica (sc. scientia) [32] and is encountered in the limited sense of a plant system in 1694 in the title of the Elemens de Botanique by Joseph Pitton de Tournefort. Only in the 19th cent. did botany gain the comprehensive meaning of all scientific disciplines involving plants [29]. Before this, botany can only be spoken of in a very limited way. Hüne…

[German version] (γύψ/ gýps; Lat. voltur or vultur, voltur[i]us, derived from vellere, to pluck, or of Etruscan origin). Aristotle knows only the small, light-coloured Egyptian vulture ( Neophron percnopterus), as well as the significantly larger and ash-gray monk vulture (Aegypius monachus) (Hist. an. 7(8),3,592b 6-8). In his writings, however, Αἰγυπιός ( aigypiós) refers to the lammergeier or bearded vulture (Aristot. Hist. an. 8(9),1,610a 1), which is related both to the eagle and to the vulture (Ail. nat. 2,46). The perknópteros (Hist. an. 8(9),32,618b 31-619a 3) with …

[German version] ἀσφόδελος ( asphódelos) is said to refer to that of the seven white- and pink-flowering species of the Liliaceae genus Asphodelus most frequent around the Mediterranean, Asphodelos microcarpus, which has been mentioned since Homer (Od. 11,539. 573; 24,13) and Hesiod (Op. 41) among others as native to the meadows of the earth and the underworld [1. 68 and fig. 108-111]. With reference to Greek authors, Dioscorides 2,169 ([2. 1. 234ff.] = 2,199 [3. 245f.]) and Plin. HN 22,67-72 praise it as a medicinal plant of manifold use. The albucus of Plin. HN 21,109 has been…

(Φαίαξ; Phaíax). [German version] [1] Ancestor of the Phaeaces Mythical ancestor of the Phaeaces, father of Alcinous [1] and Locrus [3] (Diod. Sic. 4,72,2; differenly: Hom. Od. 7,54ff.; Nausithous [1]). Käppel, Lutz (Kiel) [German version] [2] Mythical naval officer of Theseus Mythical naval officer of Theseus, together with Nausithous [3] (Plut. Theseus 17). Käppel, Lutz (Kiel) Bibliography Deubner, 225. [German version] [3] Athenian politician, 5th cent. BC Athenian, son of Eresistratus, Acharnian (Aeschin. 3,138; ostraka [3. 78 no. 152]); from a prominent fa…

[German version] (derived from Latin lens, lentis or lenticula; Greek φακός/ phakós), Ervum lens L., a pulse cultivated for millennia, especially in Egypt (two species in Plin. HN 18,123). For their mush (φακῆ/ phakê) Esau sacrificed his right as the firstborn (Gn 25:34). Among the Greeks, Solon fr. 26,3 and Hdt. 4,17 (cultivation among the Scythes) are the first to mention lentils. In Aristoph. (e.g. Equ. 1002 and Vesp. 811) as well as in Ath. 4,158a-d the lentils dish is the meal of the poor. Theophrastus (Hist. pl. 2,4,2 and…

[German version] (Ἀργεστής; Argestḗs). The north-west wind, e.g. in Aristot. Mete. 2,6,364a 14, that is set on the astronomical wind rose as the middle wind between the north and west (ζέφυρος; zéphyros) winds at the sunset point of the summer solstice. It was considered to be strong, cool, clearing and dry. Other names: Skiron in Attica, among the Greeks sailing to Sicily Iapyx and on the Italian west coast Κερκίας ( Kerkías). In Plin. HN 2,119, Vitr. De arch. 1,6,1 and Sen. Q. Nat. 5,16,5 it is called Corus. Aristot. Ανέμων θέσεις ( Anémōn théseis), 973b 13-15 cites for the Ἰάπυξ ( Iápyx) the …

[German version] (σάπφειρος/ sáppheiros, Latin sapp(h)irus). A precious stone, identical not with our modern sapphire, but with the speckled lapis lazuli (Theophr. 8; 23 and 37 Eichholz; Plin. HN 33,68 and 161; 37,119 f.), which was introduced from Egypt by the Greeks. It was not until the 3rd cent. AD onwards that it was used by the Romans for jewellery or amulets. Hünemörder, Christian (Hamburg) Bibliography 1 D. E. Eichholz (ed.), Theophrastus De lapidibus, 1965.

[German version] (Greek ὀστρακόδερμα/ ostrakóderma) or crustaceans. They partly correspond with today's phylum of the Echinodermata, i.e. the marine feather stars, starfishes and brittle stars, the  sea urchins and sea cucumbers. Aristotle who gave them the name and lists in Hist. an. 1,6,490b10 the phylum as that of the  shells ( óstrea), does however also include the  sponges (modern phylum Porifera), sea anemones (modern class Anthozoa of the phylum jellyfish, Cnidaria), sea squirts ( ascidia, modern class of sea squirts, tunicates), and the marine and land snails …

[German version] For the most part, the names ἔλαφος/ élaphos (from Hom. Il. 11,475 and passim) or cervus (= horned animal, from Plaut. Poen. 530) and νεβρός/ nebrós (deer-calf, Hom. Il. 8,248; Od. 19,228: ἑλλός/ hellós) or inuleus (Hor. Carm. 1,23,1; Prop. 3,13,35) refer to the red deer, Cervus elaphus L. The smaller fallow deer (or the roe?), Dama dama (L.) (Hom. Od. 17,295: πρόξ/ próx), Lat. dama (confused with the  gazelle!), with its palmate antlers was introduced into Greece and to some extent Italy from Asia (reference: Arr. Anab. 7,20,4: herds on the es…

[German version] (πιστάκη/ pistákē from the Aramaic fustaqā, Arabic fustuq; Lat. pistacia). The fruit-tree Pistacia vera, of the family Anacardiaceae, originated in Mesopotamia and Syria, and produces flavoursome drupes (πιστάκια/ pistákia). The pistachio became known to the Greeks through the conquests of Alexander [4] the Great. Theophr. Hist. pl. 4,4,7 mentions it as being similar to the 'terebinth' (τέρμινθον/ términthon) - still unnamed - which grew in Bactria. According to Plin. HN 15,91, L. Vitellius introduced it to Italy from Syria in AD 35 under Tiberius, and the eques Po…

[German version] (Latin Septentrio). Later name for the north wind on the wind rose, in Vitr. De arch. 1,6 etc. formed according to the northern constellation, the Great Bear (ἀπὸ τῶν τῆς ἄρκτου τόπων; apò tôn tês árktou tópōn). It was characterized as cold, strong, driving away clouds and so brightening, dry, healthy but also as bringing thunderstorms and hail. In Aristot. Mete. 2,6,364a 13-15 it is regarded as one of the north winds (Βόρεια; Bóreia) along with the Thrascias and Meses. Hünemörder, Christian (Hamburg) Bibliography K. Nielsen, Les noms grecs et latins des vents, i…

[German version] (ἀμμωνιακόν; ammōniakón). According to Dioscorides 3,84 [1.2.100 ff.] = 3,88 [2.322 f.], name for a plant gum resin (cf. Plin. HN 12,107) of the umbellate plant Ferula tingitana L. from Libya that is said to have warming, antispasmodic and even abortive powers. In other authors it is also a rock salt from the same region with astringent and purifying effects. Hünemörder, Christian (Hamburg) Bibliography 1 M. Wellmann (ed.), Pedanii Dioscuridis de materia medica vol. 2, 1906 repr. 1958 2 J. Berendes (ed.), Des Pedanios Dioskurides Arzneimittellehre, tran…

[German version] (κόκκυξ/ kókkyx, since Hes. Op. 486; Suda s.v. κοῦκκος/ koûkkos, Lat. cucul(l)us first at Plaut. Trin. 245, then at Plin. HN 18,249; 28,156 and 30,85; coccyx: Plin. HN 10,25), the well-known brood parasite and migratory bird that appears early in Greece (Dionysius, Ixeutika 1,13, [1. 11]). The cry that gives rise to its name (verb: κοκκύζειν/ kokkýzein, Hes. loc. cit.) was just as striking as its practise of depositing an egg (rarely are there two) in the nests of various small birds (in Aristot. Hist. an. 6,7,564a 2 the ὑπολαΐς/ hypolaḯs, probably a warbler). Aristot…

[German version] I. Early History In the Early Holocene, the Asian elephant, Elephas maximus, was common from central China to the Syrian Mediterranean coast. Written sources, representations, and, in particular, bones found in the excavations of settlements, indicate that some survived along the Syrian rivers into the 7th/8th cents. BC. Today their habitat is restricted to parts of southern Asia. Because of their physical strength and intelligence, Asian elephants were trained as working animals without act…

[German version] Of the Salmonidae family, Antiquity was familiar with: 1. the salmon proper, Salmo salar L., as ἴσοξ/ ísox ( isox Isid. Orig. 20,2,30), mentioned in Plin. HN 9,44 for the Rhine and Sulp. Sev. Dialogi 2,10,4 for the Liger (Loire). Auson. Mos. 97-105 describes it accurately; 2. the sea trout, Salmo trutta trutta, as fario (Auson. Mos. 128-130 and Isid. Orig. 12,6,6: varii) or salmo marinus (Plin. HN 9,68, but according to [1. 119] no. 1); 3. the brown trout, Salmo trutta fario, may be meant by salmo fluviatilis (Plin. HN 9,68) in Aquitania. Auson. Mos. 88 characterizes the sala…

[German version] Not distinguished by the Greeks as a sub-order with their own collective name from other shelled molluscs (κογχύλια/ konchýlia, Latin conchylia or conchae). Aristotle (Hist. an. 4,4,528a 11-13), however, contrasts SAS with bivalve (δίθυρα/ díthyra) ὀστρακόδερμα/ ostrakóderma (Mussels) as μονόθυρα/ monóthyra. Many species did have their own names: 1. The sea-snail κῆρυξ/ kêryx, Latin bucinum, commonly Triton's trumpet or trumpet shell,  Tritonium nodiferum Lam. Aristotle describes its bodily parts (Hist. an. 4,4,528a 1-11; 528a 33-b 13; 528b …

[German version] ( unionum conchae). The pearl oyster ( concha, Plin. HN 9,106; cf. Shells D. 3.), imported from India (Plin. HN 9,106), provided the valuable pearl (μαργαρίτης/ margarítēs, margarita), but its shell covered with the same substance was scarcely used. We know only that Nero (Suet. Nero 31) had the walls in his palace in Rome, the domus aurea -- still partially traceable -- decorated with mother-of-pearl. Hünemörder, Christian (Hamburg) Bibliography A. Schramm, s.v. P., RE 19, 867  Blümner, Techn. 22, 380.

[German version] (Late Antiquity verbena; Greek ἱερὰ βοτάνη/ hierà botánē, 'sacred herb', or περιστερεών/ peristereṓn, 'dove herb'), the Common Vervain ( Verbena officinalis L.) in the Verbenaceae family. It grows as a herbaceous plant, chiefly on walls and paths, and has small purple flowers on branched panicles. The modern scientific name indicates its great medicinal significance, primarily as an astringent for haemorrhage, fever, headaches and hyperhidrosis (Dioscorides 4,59 f. Wellmann = 4,60 f. Berendes;  cf. Plin.  HN 25,105 f.). Among the Romans, verbenaca was used…

[German version] (ἄσβεστος; ásbestos), according to [1. 171] in Dioscorides 5,115 [2. 85f.] = 5,132 [3. 539] the name for burnt lime, also λίθος ἀμίαντος, or, according to the main site of discovery, Καρύστιος, is the well known fibrous variety of the hornblende that, being fire-resistant, was made into fabrics and lamp-wicks. According to Plin. HN 19,19f. this supposed species of flax from India was very precious; according to Dioscorides 5,138 [2. 99] = 5,155 [3. 550] the amiantus stone from Cypr…

[German version] Γέρανος ( géranos), Lat. grus or gruis refers to the common crane ( Grus grus), but grus Balearica in Plin. HN 11,122 refers to the demoiselle crane ( Grus virgo [1. 131f.]; also, cf. 10,135 grues minores or vipiones). The bird's main characteristic is its long legs (Lucil. 168). Spring and autumn migrations of the crane were closely watched in the Mediterranean area since it flew over the region, but did not brood there (Hom. Il. 2,460; Aristot. Hist. an. 8(9),10,614b 18-26; Plut. Lucullus 39,5; wedge formation in C…

[German version] Classical antiquity knew only one species each from two genera of the Alaudidae family: the crested lark ( Galerida cristata L.), ἡ κόρυδος/ kórydos, κορύδαλος/ korýdalos; Latin corydalus (Marcellus, De medicamentis 29,30), galerita (Plin. HN 10,137), cassita (Gell. NA 2,29,3), Celtic alauda (Plin. HN 11,121; Marcellus, ibid. 28,50), is distinguished from the skylark ( Alauda arvensis L.), which appears in Greece only as a winter visitor, by the feather crest according to Aristot. Hist. an. 8(9),25,617b 19-23. The crested lark is the s…

[German version] Whether γαλῆ/ galê or ἰκτίς/ iktís, Lat. mustela or viverra, respectively, describes the ermine ( Mustela erminea L.) or the polecat ( M. putorius L.) remains unclear. However, the polecat is not found in modern Greece [1. vol. 1, 163]. The Romans evidently feared this animal as a predator of poultry; already Varro (Rust. 3,12,3), using the term faelis (in Columella 8,14,9, the terms are 'viverra, faelesve ... mustela'), states that it must be kept away from poultry yards. Aristotle, in any case, knows the galê well (bony genitalia: Hist. an. 2,1,500b 24 = Plin…

[German version] (Latin ulmus, f.). Several species of this genus of trees in the Ulmaceae family grow in the Mediterranean region, notably the smooth-leaved elm ( Ulmus carpinifolia Gled., Greek πτελέα/ pteléa) and the wych elm ( U. scabra Mill.), which only grows as a shrub in Greece. It is already encountered in Homer (Il. 6,419 f.; 21,242-245 and 350). Theophrastus (Hist. pl. 3,14,1) differentiates in his excellent description a ὀρειπτελέα/ oreipteléa ( Ulmus scabra; atinia in Plin. HN 16,72; cf. Columella 5,6,2 and De arboribus 16,1) from the shrubby common elm, probably U. nemora…

[German version] (Ἱππόκαμπος/ Hippókampos, Latin equus marinus). The sea horse, which Paus. 2,1,9 defines as a ‘horse, which is like a sea monster (κῆτος; kêtos) from the chest downwards’ (cf. Serv. Georg. 4,387: in the first part a horse, changing into a fish in the last part). The hippokampos is not identical with the homonymous Mediterranean fish that is mentioned by Plin. HN 32,58 et passim as a remedy (e.g. the spotted seahorse, hippocampus guttulatus [1. 138]). Literary references are rare (e.g. Str. 8,7,2 [384]). According to Ael. NA 14,20 the stomach of a hippokampos, cooked and…

[German version] The name ἡ ἀηδών/ aēdṓn (‘singer’, other derivations ἀηδονίς/ aēdonís, ἀηδονιδεύς/ aēdonideús, among others) and Latin luscinia, luscinius or lusciniola in Varro, Rust. 3,5,14 (perhaps ‘twilight singer ’[1. 1,838]), or poetic aedon, aedonius and philomela in general describe the nightingale ( Luscinia megarhynchos Brehm), from the subfamily of the thrushes, which is very widespread around the Mediterranean. The grey-brown bird, which lives inconspicuously and hidden, is not more closely described. Only Aristot. Hist. an. …

[German version] A predator of the marten family ( Mustelidae), called meles ( maeles, Varro, Rust. 3,12,3; melo, Isid. Orig. 12,2,40) by the Romans; it was nocturnal and probably unknown to the Greeks [1]. Pliny maintains wrongly (HN 8,138) that it could defend itself against humans and dogs by puffing itself up, and otherwise only mentions it in comparison with other animals. Without taking into consideration the notes of the physician Marcellus Empiricus (36,5) who under the name of adeps taxoninus (which was Celtic) according to Isidore, Orig. 20,2,24, with a quotation …

[German version] (Κύκνος/ kýknos, Latin cygnus or olor) is the term not only for the mute swan., Cygnus olor, which breeds in Europe, but also for the Nordic whooper swan, C. cygnus (L.), which migrated as a winter visitor, probably occasionally as far as Greece and Italy. Hom. Il. 2,460-463 has them gather with geese and cranes in Lydia on the 'Asian meadow' (cf. Str. 14,1,45). Homer's Hymn 21 to Apollo locates them on the river Peneius in Thessaly, Aristoph. Av. 768 on the Hebrus in Thrace, Ov. Epist. 7,1 on the Maeander [2]…

[German version] ( aeruca in Vitr. De arch. 7,12, or aerugo [1.136], Greek ἰός; iós). The poisonous verdigris produced by the effect of damp air or acids, copper acetate, was scratched off (ξυστός; xystós) or as type σκώληξ ( skṓlēx), sometimes adulterated with other substances like pumice, and used as an astringent remedy, among other references in Dioscorides 5,79 [2.3.49 ff.] = 5,91-92 [3. 511 ff.] externally for ulcers and for eye ointments (Plin. HN 34,113). Hünemörder, Christian (Hamburg) Bibliography 1 D. Goltz, Studien zur Gesch. der Mineralnamen in Pharmazie, Ch…

[German version] (ἀετίτης; aetítēs). According to Plin. HN 36.149 (cf. Plin. HN 10.12) a so-called rattle stone found in both sexes in eagles nests, which like a pregnant woman contained a further stone inside it, of which Pliny according to Sotacus (3rd cent. BC) [1.468] distinguished a total of four kinds in Africa, Arabia, Cyprus and near Leucas. Without its presence the eagle would not produce any progeny. According to the stone book of Evax ch. 1 [2.234-236], the eagle brought it from the peri…

[German version] (Greek βελόνη ( belónē), also ῥαφίς ( rhaphís) or ἀβλεννής ( ablennḗs), Ath. 7,305d; 319cd; 8,355 f.). A saltwater fish that lives in a school (Aristot. Hist. an. 8(9),2,610 b 6) (Plin. HN 32,145), the pipefish [1. 9] of the syngnathus family or the garfish (Thompson and Jones in [1]) with an interesting spawning behaviour, i.e. the laying of large eggs in winter (Aristot. Hist. an. 5,11,543b11) by reversible bursting open of the abdomen (6,13,567b22-26; Plin. HN 9,166: reference to pouch of…

[German version] It is doubtful whether representatives of the two orders of the grebes ( Podicipidae) or the northern European loons ( Colymbidae) were known to antiquity. In any case almost all grebes spent the winter at the Mediterranean. The οὐρία/ ouría (Ath. 9,395e), which is about the size of a duck and dirty brown in colour, has been interpreted as a diver [1. 220], the κολυμβίς/ kolymbís (Ath. 9,395d; cf. Aristot. Hist. an. 1,1,487a 23 and 7(8),3,593b 17) as a little grebe ( Podiceps ruficollis) [1. 158] and the καταρράκτης/ katarrháktēs (Aristot. ibid. 2,17,509a 4 and 8(9)…