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1. DefinitionThe term psychiatry (from Greek  psychḗ, “soul,” “mind,” and  iatrós, “physician”) was coined in 1808 as a Greek neologism by Johann Christian Reil, a physician in Halle (originally Psychiaterie [4]; [5]; [12]), in the sense of the art or science of healing the soul or mind. Until well into the 19th century, the term also included a broad spectrum of neurological illnesses such as epilepsy and St. Vitus’ dance ( Huntington’s chorea).The history of psychiatry can be divided into three major periods from its beginnings to the early 20 century [14]; [6]. (1) For the pe…

1. Concept Until the mid-17th century, the concept of health in the early modern period was still dominated by the ancient doctrine of the humors (humoralism and physiology) and dietetics. In the second half of the 17th century, as humoral physiology lost ground, other ideas of health took its place from the 18th to the early 19th centuries, drawing primarily on mechanistic (iatromechanical), animistic, and vitalistic views of human life in health and illness (Animism; Vitalism). Against the backd…

1. Definition The word “tuberculosis” (from the Latin  tuberculum, “protuberance”; - osis, “functional disorder”) first occurs in medical titles of the early 19th century alongside the Greek/Latin phthisis. The more usual terms were “(pulmonary) consumption” in English and  Schwindsucht  (shrinkage sickness) or  Lungenauszehrung (lung consumption) in German [15]: “phthisis heist zu teutsch die schwintsucht und kumpt von einem geschwer oder von einer feulnis der lungen und sie ist ein todtenliche sucht unnd ir ist auch muelich zu helffen” (“Phthisis is called in German  schw…

1. DefinitionHomeopathy is a concept of illness and therapy developed by the German physician Christian Friedrich Samuel Hahnemann (1755–1843) based on the ideas of vitalism, though its therapeutic conclusions differ radically from the notions of illness in vitalism and earlier ideas. According Hahnemann’s theory, the holistic physical phenomenon of illness is a “disorder” of the vital force caused by pathogenic stimuli. The physician encourages the vital force in its resistance not – as in conventional medicine (allopathy) – by means of antagonists ( contraria contrariis; “o…

1. BasicsIatrophysics (from Greek  iatrós, “Arzt”; physis, “inanimate nature”) was a 17th and 18th-century theory and practice of medicine that interpreted all phenomena of health and illness as dependent on the internal physical structure of the body, its external form, and mechanical alterability [5]. With reductionistic simplification, it attempted to apply the findings of the new experimental natural sciences to the realm of life, where everything must also be explicable physically, reconstructible mechanically (iatromechanics), …

1. Definition Anatomical (or Solid) pathology denotes the systematic search for the causes of illness (Greek pathología, i.e. the doctrine of the origin, course and symptoms of diseases) and is based on pathological anatomic changes of specific organs or tissues  (Latin solida, “solid constituents”). It is in opposition to humoral doctrine (Humoralism), which treats the non-fluid morphological substratum of the organism merely as the venue of processes based on humoral physiology.Wolfgang Uwe Eckart 2. Beginnings It was not until the 17th century that medical interest …

1. Introduction Health and illness in the early modern period up to the mid-17th century were essentially understood, both by academics and the general public, in terms of the ancient theory of humors (humoral physiology/pathology, from Latin humores, “fluids”) and dietetics, and this view survived much longer in popular and alternative medicine. Only as the ideas of humoral physiology were superseded in the second half of the 17th century did other concepts of health emerge in their stead. During the 18th and early 19th centuri…

1. Definition The term cholera is found in Hebrew as chaul rah (“fierce sickness”). It is etymologically unclear whether the name of the disease comes from the Greek choládes (“intestines”) and refers to intestinal illness, or from the Greek words for “bile” ( chólos) and "river" ( rhóos) (“river of bile”), relating to the doctrine of the four humors, or whether in reference to profuse diarrhea it is related to  cholédra (“gutter," “drainpipe”). Unlike the cholera nostras that had long been known in Europe (so-called “English cholera” in England;  Gallenruhr or “bile flux” in the …

1. Medieval rootsSince the high Middle Ages, besides independent physicians ( medicus) there were also physicians employed by secular and ecclesiastical princes, monasteries, and urban administrations who served their employers directly. They were given the Latin title  physicus (informed about nature). The distinction, sometimes still vague, between the general medical duties of a  medicus and the special duties of a  physicus (similar to Latin  physica and  medicina for medicine) was probably first clarified in the Old Empire by the medical ordinance …

1. Definition The most infallible and timeless subjective markers and symptoms in general are the sudden, unexpected, and even unnatural perceived increase in temperature in the body, accompanied by sweating, paradoxical-seeming fits of shivering, debility, and, often, aches and pains. Texts on fever from European Antiquity define fever as significant, even when there was no distinguishing criterion in the governing theory of disease of the time to allow for further differentiation.In the 15th and 16th centuries, the conception of fever originating with Hippocrat…

1. Definition Herbals in the early modern period were printed books about plants. These compendia offered detailed descriptions of plants and herbal remedies with explanations of their medical applications. Works often also included animals, animal products, and minerals that were used in medicine.Wolfgang Uwe Eckart 2. Precursors and development in early centuries Ancient botanical works and herbals served as important sources for reference on medical and herbal knowledge until well into the early modern period (Pharmacy). The main authorities w…

1. ConceptScientific medicine denotes the tendency in medicine of the 18th and 19th centuries to take scientific methods and results from physics and chemistry as its basis and to apply them consistently (see Experimental medicine). Associated with this tendency was the intention, at least, to turn away from holistic or purely philosophical concepts of medicine, especially vitalism, and – in Germany – the Romantic natural philosophy of Schelling, and to stop applying them to medical practice.Wolfgang Uwe Eckart 2. Principles From classical antiquity until the 17th ce…

1. Beginnings in LeidenIn the history of European medicine, the clinical school made its first appearance in the late 17th century at the University of Leiden, which played a pioneering role in the birth of clinical medicine, when for the first time ever instruction was given alongside the sickbed (Greek klíne, “bed, couch”). Previously the faculty of medicine (Medicine, faculty of) had limited itself to theoretical instruction; including a hospital in the teaching was not considered.In the first half of the 17th century in Leiden, Otto van Heurne had already sou…

1. DefinitionPain (from Latin  poena via Old French  peine; German  Schmerz from OHG  smerza/ smerzo and MHG  smerze/ smerz; Greek  álgos; Latin  dolor, acerbitas) is a complex sensory perception; as an acute event, it serves as a warning sign and guidepost, but chronic pain has lost this element. An early modern synonym of  Schmerz is Pein (from OHG  pîna and MHG  pîne/ pîn, from Latin  poena, “penance, punishment”; cf. English  pain), usually associated with punishment, torture, torment, and so on (cf. German  peinliche Befragung, “painful inquiry,” i.e. torture). In an…

1. Theories before Harvey From antiquity into the 17th century, people generally believed that the blood circulated centrifugally in the body, according to the canonical theory of the circulation of the blood of the Greco-Roman physician Galen of  Pergamum. Blood was produced by the liver, passed through the vena cava into the right ventricle, and then passed through the cadiac septum into the left ventricle, whence it was distributed throughout  the body; it was finally dissipated at the periphery …

1. The theory and its background Brunonianism, a medical reform movement, was inspired by the Scottish physician John Brown (1736–1788), who considered life a condition aroused and maintained by internal and external stimuli. The fundamental life force, he maintained, was the biological potential for stimulus or excitation. The critical factor determining the sickness or health of the human body must be considered the individual’s excitability (Latin incitabilitas), the readiness and ability of the organism to respond to stimuli. After c. 1700, a variety of …

1. The concept“Irritability,” from Latin  irritabilis, irritabilitas (see also “sensibility” from Latin  sensibilis, sensibilitas), is a medical description of the condition of the body with regard to its ability to respond to (external) sensory stimuli and to react to them. Abnormalities of irritability and sensibility were considered symptomatic of illness.Around 1700, the Cartesian-mechanistic conception of life came in for increased criticism (Mechanism). Although physical-mechanistic reductionism initially held great attraction as an expl…

1. Starting points for early modern anatomy There was certainly no routine prohibition of dissections of human bodies in medieval anatomy. This was not what we might call an autopsia in the modern sense, i.e. in the sense of personal observation and interpretation of the findings of the dissection as actually found, because the self-contained dogma of humoral pathology (doctrine of humours; see also Humoralism) and of the anatomy and physiology associated with this doctrine offered a model of explanation and action that cou…

1. Medieval forms of public healthAttempts to regulate public health date back to the Middle Ages. These included the influence of monasteries in their immediate environments, efforts on the part of the Orders of Knights, rudimentary regulations in cities aimed at improving hygiene, as well as the establishment of special institutions for care of the sick both inside the city walls (hospitals, apothecaries, smallpox foundations) and outside them (leprosariums; see epidemic). The medical regulations o…

1. Medicine Preservative (from Latin  praeservare, “preserve,” “prevent”) was originally a term from the technical language of medicine, which then was borrowed into other areas. German Präservativ in the sense of condom did not become common until the 19th century (see 3. below).Originally, a preservative was understood to be “a medicine that protects against diseases and forestalls them” (means of protection, Latin  remedium mali imminentis, “remedy against an imminent evil”) [2. 94]. In Krünitz, at the end of the 18th century, preservatives were means of s…

1. IntroductionVitalism (from the Latin vita, “life”) was a tendency within medicine and philosophy of the 18th century that postulated the existence of a life force ( vis vitalis) that controlled and sustained life. The driving force of vitalism was the theory of the soul advanced in opposition to Cartesian mechanism by Georg Ernst Stahl (Animism) [9. 293–310]; [7]; [8]. This view focused primarily on the energizing, life-sustaining forces of each individual organ ( vita propria) and of the body as a whole.The vitalism proposed by the French medics Théophile de Bordeu a…

1. From the bath-house to the thermal spring The decline of the medieval urban bathing culture and the souring of its reputation probably came about primarily because of the rapid spread of syphilis from the late 15th century In many places, this led to the closure of town bath-houses (Bathkeeper), which were held to be dangerous reservoirs of infection (Illness). As this was happening, however, rising timber prices stimulated by increasing construction in towns and the growth of mining, which consumed …

1. ConceptEpidemiology (from the Greek  epídemos, “spread among the people”, and   lógos, “doctrine”) describes the occurrence, causes, and distribution of health-related conditions, events, and risks in populations, and seeks ways of using this information to restore and promote health and to avert illness by prevention. Epidemiological knowledge is generally applied to keep health problems under control in the population. The first work on epidemiology in the scientific sense took place in the 17th century.Wolfgang Uwe Eckart 2. Demographic epidemiology …

1. Definition Therapeutic concepts are remedial theories in medicine that derive approaches to treatment based on a particular understanding of illness. These then follow theories and rules that are relatable in practice. For the early modern period, a fundamental distinction can be drawn between magical and rational therapeutic concepts (see below, 2.). The basis for the rational concept of academic medicine was the ancients’ threefold subdivision of therapy (dietetic, surgical, pharmaceutical). …

1. Basics In the course of the 17th century, the hospital of the ancient religious and charitable type was transformed into an institution devoted entirely to caring for the sick [4]; [6]. Special forms of the old hospitals decreased in number (leprosaria, pox houses) and new forms appeared (academic infirmaries, lying-in hospitals). In the 18th and 19th centuries, large municipal infirmaries sprang up in the cities, general infirmaries in the towns, and finally pavilion infirmaries in decentralized, multi-functional form. (see 3. below).Wolfgang Uwe Eckart2. Architectural …

1. Definition and background In the 16th and 17th centuries, medical codes in the form of government decrees, edicts, and ordinances primarily regulated the behavior of the various medical occupational groups and their representatives (Medic) towards each other, defined criteria for training and certification, and also occasionally included hygienic instructions (for avoiding epidemics) and pharmaceutical advice. They were an expression of territorially defined government care (including city and town governments) for the health of subjects and citizens [1]. The transi…

1. Terminological history Hygíeia (or Hygeía, Latin Salus) in Greek mythology was the daughter of Asclepius and the goddess of health. The word “hygiene” derives from her name. During the early modern period, the sense of the term hygíeia expanded. Zedler’s  Universallexikon defines it as “health, good condition of the body, consisting in a good temperament (mixture of humors), evident from the fact that the individual can well do what is required of him, feels nothing untoward in himself, eats and drinks well, sleeps well, urinates and makes stool properly” ( guter Zustand des L…

1. Definition and originsFrom the 19th century on, “health insurance” referred to a solidarity-based community healthcare system for journeymen and laborers that would take care of people who had fallen on hard times due to illness, and of their families. Thus, health insurance can be seen as an expression of social-paternalistic efforts on the part of factory owners and entrepreneurs. The phrase “health insurance” first appeared in today’s sense in the second half of the 18th century (e.g. Kranken-Casse zu Paris für fremde evang. Sattlergesellen, (“Health insurance in Pa…

1. General The term  medic (German Medizinalperson) here encompasses all the early modern non-academic medical practitioners who practiced their healing arts for the “common man” [16] in fixed locations or as itinerants. Medics ( Medizinalpersonen) “are individuals whose occupations focus on the ailing body and the recovery of the sick, including physicians, barber surgeons, obstetricians, midwives, apothecaries, and orderlies” [1]. In an extended sense, the term also included so-called Pfuscher (amateur practitioners), Storger (“mountebanks”),  Landfahrer (“dri…

1. Diseases and plaguesThe correct identification of early modern plagues and epidemics in terms of modern pathology is highly problematical. Even evidence of symptom correlation is open to doubt. This is true of the plethora of pestilential fevers, but no less true in the case of illnesses that are apparently identifiable without difficulty, but behind which may lurk in principle any infection with epidemic propensity. The learned world of the 15th and 16th centuries certainly knew of the ominous …

1. Concept Until the mid-17th century, the early modern concept of illness was still primarily shaped by classical humoralism and dietetics. The ideas of humoral physiology were gradually replaced by other concepts of illness, which from the 18th to the early 19th century were based on mechanistic, animistic, and vitalist notions of human life in health and illness. Around the middle of the 19th century, thanks to the development of scientific physiology, cellular pathology, and bacteri…

1. Concept and terms The German term for accident,  Unfall (Middle High German unval, ungeval; compare chance; French  accident) means an unforeseen event or misadventure, generally relating to personal injury or material damage, and also military defeats as well as the special life and death circumstances of “famous men,” as for instance in the 1570 German translation of Giovanni Boccaccio’s De casibus virorum illustrium (orig. 1356-1373) by Hieronymus Ziegler as merckliche und erschröckliche unfahl . verderben unnd Sterben großmächtiger Kayser (“noteworthy and shockin…

1. Concept and scopeThe term “quack,” short for “quacksalver” (Early New Dutch quacksalver, German  Quacksalber, composed of quacken, “to cry,” “to quack [like a duck],” and  salver/Salber, from the OHG salbari, “physician,” or Latin  salvare, “to heal”; French charlatan, Italian  ciarlatano), generally referred to someone pretending to be a healer and practicing without authority, or sometimes to certified healers who advertised their skills or remedies stridently (Latin circumforaneus, “around the marketplace”) [2]. First attested in English in the 1630s, Quacksalber i…

1. DefinitionIn the first centuries of the early modern period, surgery (German Wundarznei) was the manual or operative treatment of illness, in the narrower sense the treatment of wounds. The German word is attested in the 14th century (MHG  wunt-arzâtîe; also  wundartzat, wontarzte). The Strasbourg guild laws of 1461 speak of all “artzote und artzotinne, wundeartzot, scherer und bader” (“male and female doctors, surgeons, barbers, and barber surgeons” [1]. From the late Middle Ages on, synonyms included German  Chirurgie and  chirurgus (from Latin  chirurgia, Greek  chei…

1. Ramazzini and his precursors Early modern occupational medicine began with the seminal treatise of the Italian physician Bernardino Ramazzini,  De morbis artificium diatriba (Modena 1700; “Investigation of the Diseases of Artisans and Craftsmen”), clearly comparable in its significance for early industrial hygiene to Morgagni’s De sedibus et causis morborum (Bologna 1761; “On the Seats and Causes of Diseases”) for pathological anatomy. In it Ramazzini described in details the various illnesses of the most important occupational groups of…

1. BegriffDer Begriff U. (franz. vermine, engl. vermin) ist seit dem 12. Jh. bezeugt, wobei sich das ahdt. Stammwort zebar zu nhdt. ziefer (»Tier«) wandelte. Möglicherweise bezeichnete der Stamm im engeren Sinne das Opfertier, sodass das doppelte Peiorativ-Präfix un- und ge- auf nicht zur Opferung geeignete Tiere verweisen dürfte. Synonyme waren u. a. »Geschmeiß« (von mhdt. smeiszen und smîszen; mlat. cacare, »mit Kot beschmutzen«), das Martin Luther auch antijüd. sinnbildlich verwendete (»die Jüden mit jrem geschmeis und lere«; s. u. 5.) oder »Gezüchte«, das seit Konrad von …

1. DefinitionDer Terminus M. geht auf die von der Annales-Schule beeinflusste franz. Medizingeschichtsschreibung zurück [4]. Erstmals wurde der Begriff von dem franz. Historiker Jean-Pierre Goubert definiert [9. 170]. Er verstand unter M. einen Vorgang von langer Dauer, der in der zweiten Hälfte des 18. Jh.s einsetzte und in dessen Verlauf es den Ärzten gelang, ihr mediz. Angebot mit Hilfe des Staates breiten Bevölkerungs-Schichten zu oktroyieren. Es handelt sich also um einen Prozess der Erweiterung des mediz. Marktes, bei dem eine Berufsgruppe…

1. Begriff und Lehre 1.1. AllgemeinP. bezeichnet zum einen die naturkundliche, hermetisch-chemische, mediz., philosophische und theologische Lehre des Arztes und Naturforschers Theophrast von Hohenheim (genannt Paracelsus, 1493–1541) [2], zum anderen deren Rezeption durch eine fachlich heterogene Autorengruppe vom Ende des 16. bis ins frühe 18. Jh. (s. u. 2. und 3.) – überwiegend alchemisch orientierte Ärzte und Anhänger des häretischen Protestantismus, die Paracelsus mythisierend als »neuen Hippokrates« oder als Elias artista überhöhten. Ihre Lehre wurde von de…

1. WortgeschichteDas Wort O. (von griech. órganon/lat. organum, »Werkzeug«, »Musikinstrument«) erscheint in lat. Form erstmals in Texten des HochMA. Bis zur zweiten Hälfte des 17. Jh.s sind allerdings nur zwei Nachweise des Ausdrucks bekannt, der eine aus dem 11. Jh. in alchemistischem, der andere aus dem 12. Jh. in kirchenmusikal. Kontext [7. 320]. Als Ableitung von »organisch« und »Organ«, die schon seit der Antike zur Bezeichnung der lebendigen gegliederten Körper und ihrer Teile dienten, rückte der Ausdruck O. seit Ende des 17. Jh.s in den Kontext der sich…

1. Medizin 1.1. Blut in der HumoralpathologieUnter B. wurde bis ins frühe 18. Jh. der feuchte, wohltemperierte »Safft« verstanden, der »sich in den B.-Adern aufhält, und nach [der Ärzte] Meynung aus vier besondern Feuchtigkeiten, nemlich Schleim, gelber und schwarzer Galle und dem eigentlich sogenanntem B.« bestehe [1. 207]. Die Säfte mit den ihnen eigenen Qualitäten (Blut: warm, feucht; gelbe Galle: warm, trocken; Phlegma/Schleim: kalt, feucht; schwarze Galle: kalt, trocken) entstehen aus Sicht der Humoralpathologie durch Kochung (lat. coctio) aus der Nahrung und sind …

1. BegriffDer Begriff H. ist dem Lateinischen entlehnt (von hospitalitas, »Gastfreundschaft«) und in verschiedenen Abwandlungen in den europ. Sprachen nachzuweisen (dt. hopitalhûs, Spital, Spittel; franz. hôpital; engl.-span. …

1. TerminologyThe term vermin (French  vermine, German  Ungeziefer) is attested since approximately 1300. The German term goes back to the 12th century, as the OHG root word  zebar became modern German  ziefer (animal). The German root may possibly have meant a sacrificial animal in the narrower sense, so that the double pejorative prefix  un- and  ge- might suggest animals not fit for sacrifice. Synonyms included  Geschmeiß (from MHG  smeiszen and  smîszen; modern Latin  cacare, “smear with dung”), which Martin Luther used figuratively in an anti-Jewish sense ( die Jüden …

1. Terminological historyThe word “organism” (from the Greek  órganon/Latin  organum, “implement”, “instrument [musical or surgical]”) first appeared in its Latin form in texts of the high Middle Ages. However, only two attestations of the term exist from before the mid-17th century, one from an alchemical context in the 11th century, the other from the context of church music in the 12th [7. 320]. The term “organism” as a derivative of “organic” and “organ,” both known since Greco-Roman antiquity as terms denoting the living structure of the body and its parts, began from the late 17th century to be used in the context o…

1. Concept The word “hospital” derives from “hospitality” (Latin  hospitalitas), a derivation found in various forms in a number of European languages (e.g. German hopitalhûs, Spital, Spittel; French hôpital; Spanish hospital; Italian  ospedale) [2]; [1]. From the outset, the concept reflected a double function of care for the sick and responsibility for all forms of need.Maike Rotzoll 2. Middle Ages The development of the hospital in the medieval west was for the most part closely associated with the principle of Christian caritas (Charity). From the early days of Christian…

1. Europe 1.1. Renaissance 1.1.1. Medical Humanism and ReformationInfluenced by the Renaissance and Humanism, medicine, as part of the  studia humaniora from the 14th century, also undertook a philological and critical turn towards its ancient foundations and sources [1]; [2] (Humanism, medical). Knowledge in medical science was acquired by reading classical works now purged of real or supposed medieval and Arabic “corruptions” (Hippocrates, Celsus, Galen), but also – already – through the application of the principle of autopsía (“self-seeing,” i.e. direct obser…

1. Concept and theory 1.1. IntroductionParacelsism on the one hand denotes the theories in natural history, hermetic alchemy/chemistry, medicine, philosophy, and theology of the physician and naturalist Theophrastus Bombastus von Hohenheim (called Paracelsus, 1493-1541) [2], and on the other the reception of those theories from the late 16th to early 18th centuries (see below, 2. and 3.) by a group of authors in various disciplines, most of them physicians sympathetic to alchemy and followers of heterodox forms of Protestantism…

1. Medicine 1.1. Humoral pathologyUntil the early 18th century, blood was thought of as the moist, well-tempered “sap that fills the blood vessels and is thought [by physicians] to consist of four particular humors: phlegm, yellow and black bile, and the blood proper” [1]. In the view of humoralism, the humors with their associated qualities (blood: warm, moist; yellow bile: warm, dry; phlegm: cold, moist; black bile: cold, dry) are produced by digestion (Latin coctio, literally “cooking”) of food; they are always present in whole blood in varying proportion. The o…

1. DefinitionThe term medicalization goes back to the French medical historiography of the  Annales school [4]. It was first defined by the French historian Jean-Pierre Goubert [9. 170]. He understood medicalization as a long-term process that began in the second half of the 18th century, in the course of which physicians succeeded in imposing their medical services on broad strata of the population with the help of the state. This was a process that expanded the medical marketplace, in which one professional group wa…

1. Begriff und GrundlagenWährend die Iatroastrologie ebenso wie die Iatromagie ab dem 17. Jh. an Einfluss verlor, verstärkte sich nach dem Erscheinen von Paracelsus' Schriften ab 1560 die Bedeutung der Chemie als tragender Säule des neuen Lebenskonzeptes (Paracelsismus; Chemische Wissenschaften). Die Kernaussage, dass alle Lebensvorgänge essentiell chemisch determiniert seien, verfestigte sich zum Denksystem der I. (von griech. iatrós, »Arzt« und neulat. ( al) chemía, »Chemie«; auch Chemiatrie, Chymiatrie) [7]; [3]; [6].Die I. des 16. und 17. Jh.s ist Ausdruck ei…

1. Definition and basicsWhile the influence of iatroastrology, like that of iatromagic, waned after the 17th century, with the appearance of Paracelsus’ works beginning in 1560, the importance of chemistry as a cornerstone of the new concept of life increased (Paracelsism; Chemical sciences). The central assertion that all life processes are essentially chemical solidified into the intellectual system of iatrochemistry (from Greek  iatrós, “physician,” and neo-Latin ( al) chemía, “chemistry”; also called chemiatry and chymiatry) [7]; [3]; [6].The iatrochemistry of the …

1. Naturphilosophie 1.1. Abgrenzung zum MenschenDer Begriff des Tierischen wird in der Nz. häufig direkt oder indirekt mit dem des Menschlichen kontrastiert [10]. Anfänglich wurde er verwendet, um das Gebiet der philosophischen Anthropologie abzugrenzen (Mensch, Menschheit); erst später bezeichnete »T.« die Studienobjekte der Zoologie. Diese anthropozentrische Perspektive findet sich deutlich etwa in den renaissancezeitlichen Druckausgaben von ma. Bestiarien, die alle bekannten T.-Arten aus der realen Welt und dem Reich von Phantasie und Fabel meist i…

1. Allgemein 1.1. Definition und frühe BegriffsgeschichteDer Begriff P. stammt aus dem Griechischen (von psych椃, ursprgl. ›Atem‹, ›Seele‹; d. h. ›Seelenkunde‹). Die moderne empirische Wissenschaft der P. begründete ihr weltweit erstes Forschungsinstitut 1879 in Leipzig. In philosophischer Perspektive setzte die europ. P. als Beschäftigung mit den Eigenschaften der Seele jedoch schon mit den Vorsokratikern im 5. Jh. v. Chr. ein.Der kroat. Humanist Marcus Marulus (Marulić) soll 1510/17 einen (verschollenen) Traktat Psichiologia de ratione animae humanae (›Seelenkunde …

1. Natural philosophy 1.1. Distinction from humanDirectly or indirectly, the concept of the animal was frequently contrasted with that of the human in the early modern period [10]. Initially, it was used to define the sphere of philosophical anthropology (Humanity). Only later did “animal” come to denote an object of zoological study (Zoology). This anthropocentric perspective is clearly seen, for instance, in Renaissance printed editions of medieval bestiaries, which present all known species of animals – from the real w…

1. Introduction and general history 1.1. Definition and early terminological historyThe word “psychology” comes from the Greek ( psychḗ, originally “breath,” “soul”; i.e. “lore of the soul”). The modern empirical science of psychology established its first research institute at Leipzig in 1879, but from a philosophical perspective, European psychology (as a study of the properties of the soul) began with the work of the Presocratic philosophers in the 5th century BCE.The Croatian Humanist Marcus Marulus (Marulić) is said to have written a treatise (now lost) entitled Psichio…