Search

, a group of coral islets in the Indian Ocean, lying between 7° 6′ N. and 0° 42′ S. lat., and 72° and 74° E. long., and consisting of seventeen atolls with a great number of islands, of which about 300 are inhabited, the population being estimated at 70,000. The Moorish traveller, Ibn Baṭṭūṭa, lived for more ¶ than a year (1343—1344) in the islands, but the first Europeans to visit them were the Portuguese, who established a factory in them in 1518. The Maldives were much harassed by Māppilla (Moplah) pirates from the Malabar Coast and in 1645 the kin…

(Ḏj̲alāl al-Dīn), the twelfth Muḥammadan emperor of Dihlī, was an Afg̲h̲ān of the Ḵh̲ild̲j̲ī or G̲h̲ild̲j̲ī tribe who first rose to eminence in Balban’s reign and later became governor of Sāmāna. When Muʿizz al-Dīn Kaiḳubād fell sick, he was summoned to Dihlī to assume the direction of affairs, but encountered much opposition from the Turkī amīrs, who, as the emperor grew feebler, proclaimed his infant son, S̲h̲ams al-Dīn Kayūmart̲h̲. ¶ Fīrūz acknowledged the child but removed him from the custody of the Turks and seized the palace of Kīlūgharī where, with his co…

, or Ḳuzdār, is the name of a town in 27° 48′ N. and 66° 37′ E. and of the district in which it is situated, a long, narrow valley, important by reason of its central position at the point of convergence of roads from Kalāt on the north, Karāčī and Bela on the south, Kačhī on the east, and Makrān and Ḵh̲ārān on the west. Yāḳūt describes it as a small town in a fertile district, which he calls Ṭūrān, producing grapes, pomegranates, and other fruits, but not dates. It is a city of India, or rather, …

, an adventurer who founded the first dynasty of Muḥammadan kings of Kas̲h̲mīr, settled in that country in a. d. 1315—1316 and, having ingratiated himself with the rād̲j̲a, Siṁhadeva, who was perhaps impressed by the stranger’s pretensions to descend from Ard̲j̲una, the Pāṇḍava, entered his service. Kas̲h̲mīr suffered two invasions during Siṁhadeva’s reign, that of Dulča, a Turk from Ḳandahār, and that of the Bhautta of Thibet, Rinčana, both of whom entered the country by the Zod̲j̲ī-lā. Rinčana usurped the throne, made…

, Mawlānā, of Buk̲h̲ārā, is also known as ʿArūḍī, “the Prosodist,” from his work ʿArūḍ-i-Saifī. Little is known of his life, but he lived for many years at Hirāt, at the courts of the Tīmūrids, Sulṭān Abū Saʿīd (1459—1469), great-grandson of Tīmūr and grandfather of Bābur, and Abu ’l-G̲h̲āzī Sulṭān Ḥusain Mīrzā (1473—1506), great-grandson of Tīmūr’s second son, ʿUmar S̲h̲aik̲h̲ Mīrzā. As a poet he was of little consideration, and hb poems are trivial. His fame rests on his work ʿArūḍ-i-Saifī, ed. Blocbmann, Calcutta 1867 (“Saifī’s Prosody”), also known as ʿArūḍ-i-Kāfīya (the amply su…

, one of the five indepenpent Muslim dynasties of the Dakan, which arose on the ruins of the Bahmanī Kingdom, named, like the others, from the title (Ḳuṭb al-Mulk) borne under the Bahmanī kings by its founder, Sulṭān Ḳulī, a Ḳaiāḳūyunlū Turk of Saʿdābād, near Hamadān, who, entering the service of Muḥammad III, was entitled by his son, Maḥmūd, Ḵh̲awāṣṣ Ḵh̲ān. When, in 1490, the provincial governors of Aḥmadnagar, Bīd̲j̲āpūr, and Barār proclaimed their independence of Bīdar, Sulṭān Ḳulī was still …

, now the capital of the Niẓām’s dominions in the Dakhan, was founded in 1590 by Muḥammad Ḳulī Ḳuṭb S̲h̲āh, fifth king of the Ḳuṭb S̲h̲āhī dynasty of Golkonda, who at first named it Bhāgnagar after his favourite Hindū mistress Bhāgmatī, but afterwards, regretting his infatuation, changed its name to Ḥaidarābād, the city of Ḥaidar, or ʿAlī. In 1591 he made it his capital and it remained the capital of the kingdom until the extinction of his dynasty in 1687. ¶ Ḥaidarābād then became the chief town of a ṣūbah of the Mug̲h̲al empire and in 1724 passed into the possession of Čīn…

, one of the dynasties known as Atābaks, or Regents, which arose on the ruins of the empire of the Sald̲j̲ūḳs. Salg̲h̲ur was the chief of a band of Turkmāns who migrated into Ḵh̲urāsān and attached themselves to Ṭug̲h̲ril Beg [q. v.], the first of the Great Sald̲j̲ūḳs. Būzāba [q.v.], one of Salg̲h̲ur’s descendants, was killed in battle by Sulṭān G̲h̲iyāt̲h̲ al-Dīn Masʿūd, the fourth of the Sald̲j̲ak kings of ʿIrāḳ and Kurdistan, and his nephew, Sunḳur b. Mawdūd, rose against the Sald̲j̲ūḳ and in…

, S̲h̲āh S̲h̲arḳī, succeeded his father, Ibrāhīm S̲h̲āh, on the throne of Ḏj̲awnpūr in 1436. In 1443 he obtained permission from Maḥmūd I of Mālwa to punish Naṣīr Ḵh̲ān, governor of Kālpī, which was a fief of Mālwa, for breaches of the law and customs of Islām committed by him, but Maḥmūd of Mālwa repented of his complaisance, and war broke out between Mālwa and Ḏj̲awnpūr. Hostilities, which were indecisive were terminated by a compromise. In 1452 Maḥmūd S̲h̲arḳī, on the invitation of some disaffe…

is the name of a fountain in Paradise, mentioned only once in the Ḳorʾān, in Sūra lxxvi. 18. The passage runs: “And there shall they (the just) be given to drink of the cup tempered with ginger, from the fount therein whose name is Salsabīl”. Grammarians differ as to the derivation of the word. Some refer it to the triliteral root s-b-l while others derive it from a quinqueliteral root of which it is, except in its own feminine form, the sole derivative. Some explain it as meaning “that which slips or steals ( yansallu) into the throat”, as though the only radical letters were s and l. The derivation…

, S̲h̲aik̲h̲, Muṣliḥ-al-Dīn, whose renown is second to that of no Persian poet, was born at S̲h̲īrāz in 580/1184. His father was in the service of the Salg̲h̲urid Atābeg, Saʿd b. Zangī, from whom the poet took his Tak̲h̲alluṣ, or poetical pseudonym, of Saʿdī. It has been suggested that this name was taken from Saʿd II, son of Abū Bakr and grandson of Saʿd I, but this is improbable, for Saʿd II did not begin to reign until shortly after Saʿdī, who was then sixty-seven years of age and had already written much, returned to S̲h̲īrāz fr…

, spelt Kalburga in Marāṭhī, was a town of little importance until ʿAlāʾ al-Dīn Bahman S̲h̲āh made it his capital in 1347 on establishing his independence as sulṭān of the Dakhan. It remained the capital of the Dakhan until 1429, when Aḥmad S̲h̲āh I, ninth king of the Bahmanī dynasty, rebuilt Bīdar and transferred his court thither. On the disruption of the Bahmanī kingdom in 1490 Gulbarga vr.as in the possession of the African eunuch, Dastūr Dīnār, but ten years later he was defeated and slain by…

(Ḵh̲ild̲j̲ī), the dynasty of Mālwa, was founded in a. d. 1436 by Maḥmūd Ḵh̲ild̲j̲ī, of the same tribe as the Ḵh̲ald̲j̲īs of Dihlī [q. v.]. Dilāwar Ḵh̲ān, founder of the G̲h̲orī dynasty [q. v.], had been accompanied to Mālwa by his cousin, Malik Mug̲h̲īt̲h̲, and on the deposition of Dilāwar Ḵh̲an’s grandson, G̲h̲aznīn Ḵh̲ān (Muḥammad S̲h̲āh), Maḥmūd offered the crown to his own father, Malik Mug̲h̲īt̲h̲, who declined it in favour of his son. Maḥmūd’s long reign was at first disturbed by rebellions on beha…

, a clan of Afg̲h̲āns to which S̲h̲īr S̲h̲āh, the conqueror of Humāyūn the Tīmūrid, and founder of the short-lived Sūr dynasty of Dihlī and Āgra, belonged. Firis̲h̲tā, following earlier authorities, describes the Sūr as a tribe of Afg̲h̲āns of Roh, the hill-country which is now the abode of frontier tribes over whom the British Government exercises little authority, and the Afg̲h̲ān Government less. According to the same authority the Sūr tribe traces its descent from the S̲h̲ansabānī dynasty of…

, Nāṣir al-Dīn, Sūlṭān of Dihlī, was the son of S̲h̲ams al-Dīn Iltutmis̲h̲ by the daughter of Ḳuṭb al-Dīn Aibak [q. v.]. In 1246, when the nobles at Dihlī were growing weary of the sloth, incompetence, and tyranny of Masʿūd, Maḥmūd, then about 18 years of age, was governor of Bahrāič, and hastened secretly to the capital when he learned that the throne was likely to become vacant. On June 10, 1246, Masʿūd was. deposed and thrown into prison, where he died shortly afterwards, and Maḥmūd, his uncle,…

, ʿImād al-Dīn, Ḵh̲wād̲j̲a, was born in a. d. 1405, of a family which had long held high office in the small principality of Gīlān, and is said to have taken the name of Gāwān, by which he was afterwards known in India, from Ḳāwān, his birthplace. He received a good education and as a young man made the pilgrimage to Mekka. While he was there his family fell into disgrace, so that he could not safely return home. Refusing offers of employment in other parts of Persia he became a merchant, and in 1455 sa…

, Ḥād̲j̲d̲j̲ī Mīrzā Ḏj̲ānī, the Bābī historian, was a merchant of Kās̲h̲ān who, with two of his three brothers, Ḥād̲j̲d̲j̲ī Mīrzā Ismāʿīl Ḍabīḥ and Ḥād̲j̲d̲j̲ī Mīrzā Aḥmad, was among the earliest disciples of Mīrzā ʿAlī Muḥammad, the Bāb. When the Bāb, in 1847, was being conducted from Iṣfahān to his prison at Mākū the brothers bribed his escort to allow him to be their guest for two days and two nights at Kās̲h̲ān. In the following year Kās̲h̲ānī, with Bahāʾ Allāh, Ṣubḥ-i Azal and other prominent …

, the adjectival form of Ḵh̲alad̲j̲, the name of a Turkish tribe which migrated from Turkistān at a period which cannot be precisely ascertained and settled in Western Afg̲h̲ānistān. From long residence in this country they were regarded, even as early as the end of the thirteenth century, when Fīrūz Ḵh̲ald̲j̲ī ascended the throne of Dihlī, as Afg̲h̲āns. They bore a high reputation as statesmen and soldiers, many served the early kings of G̲h̲aznī and G̲h̲ur, and many afterwards attained to the …

, the, of Mālva, was founded by Ḥusain, entitled Dilāvar Ḵh̲ān, an amir of Fīrūz S̲h̲āh Tag̲h̲laḳ of Dihlī claiming descent from S̲h̲ihāb al-Dīn Muḥammad b. Sām. Dilāwar Ḵh̲ān, having been appointed governor of Mālva by Muḥammad S̲h̲āh, son of Fīrūz, became independent in 1401, after the overthrow of the empire of Dihlī by Tīmūr. He died in a. d. 1405-1406, and was succeeded by his son Hūs̲h̲ang, who was suspected of having poisoned him. Hūs̲h̲ang, who built the fortress of Māndū, was chiefly occupied during his reign in unsuccessful warfare with Gud̲j̲…

, the second king of the Bahmanī dynasty of the Dakan, was the ¶ eldest son of Ḥasan, ʿAlāʾ al-Dīn Bahman S̲h̲āh, usually, but incorrectly, styled Ḥasan Gangū. On succeeding his father, on Feb. 11, 1358, he carefully organized the government of the four provinces of the kingdom and the administration of the army. The pertinacity of the Hindū bankers and moneychangers in melting down the gold coinage which he introduced led to a general massacre of the community and the measure involved him in hostilities wit…

, the name given by Muslim writers to the Indus (Sanskrit Sindhu), called by the Greeks ΣίνθοΣ and ῎ΙνδοΣ, by the Romans Sindus and Indus, and by early Muslim writers Āb-i Sind (the Water of Sind). The name is more particularly applied to the lower reaches of the river, after it enters Sind. Pliny writes of “Indus, incolis Sindus appellatus”. The Indus rises in 32° N. and 81° E., receives the Kābul river almost opposite to Ātak, and the Pand̲j̲nad, the accumulated waters of the five rivers of the Pand̲j̲āb, just above Mithankot. Near Kas̲h̲mor, in 28° 26…

, commonly mis-spelt in Hindī and in Indian Persian Marhaṭṭa, is the name of a people of Western India inhabiting Mahārās̲h̲tra, the country lying to the east of the Western Ghāts between the seventeenth and the ¶ twenty-first parallels of north latitude and extending at one point as far east as the seventy-ninth degree of east longitude. The Marāṭhā caste is an agricultural caste, of common origin and nearly identical with the great Kunbi caste, but sometimes claiming a Kshatriya descent. The Marāṭhās served in the armies of the Muslim Kingdoms of Sout…

, a town of Sind, situated in 27° 57′ N. and 68° 40′ E., was founded in the seventeenth century by the Dāūdputras, a tribe of warriors and weavers, who established their supremacy in Upper Sind and made their new town their capital. In 1701 it was captured by Yār Muḥammad Ḵh̲an, the founder of the Kalhora dynasty, with the aid of the Sirāi or Tālpūr tribe of the Balūč, and became, in turn, his capital, but the district in which the town is situated remained in the hands of the Dāūdputras until it was conquered in 1719 by Nor Muḥammad, the son and successor of Yār Muḥammad. In 1739 Thatha and S̲h̲ikārp…

, or, more properly, Tug̲h̲luḳ, the correct vocalization being given by Ibn Baṭṭūṭa, is the name of a dynasty which reigned at Dihlī from 1320 until 1413, and is taken from the personal name of its founder, G̲h̲iyāt̲h̲. al-Dīn Tug̲h̲luḳ, a Ḳarawniya Turk, that is to say, the offspring of a Turkish father and an Indian mother. When Mubārak, the last of the Ḵh̲ald̲j̲īs [q.v.], was murdered by his vile favourite, Ḵh̲usraw, Tug̲h̲luḳ, who was employed on the northwestern frontier, where his numerous suc…

, of whom S̲h̲aik̲h̲ Abu ’l-Faḍl said: “A singer like him has not been in India for a thousand years”, was a native of Gwāliyār, and was at first in the service of Rām Čand the Bag̲h̲ela, Rād̲j̲ā of Pannā, who is said to have given him on one occasion ten million tankas. Ibrāhīm Sūr vainly endeavoured to entice him to Āgra, but Akbar, in 1562, sent a mission to Rām Čand at Kālind̲j̲ar to induce Tānsīn to come to his court, and Rām Čand, not daring to refuse the request, sent him with his musical instruments and many presents to the imperial court…

, situated in the north-western corner of the Niẓām’s dominions, is the ancient Devagirī or Deogir, which has been identified with Ptolemy’s Τάγαρα. It was the capital of the northern Yādavas from 1187 until their final overthrow by the Muslims in 1318. In 1294 ¶ Devagirī was attacked by ʿAlāʾ al-Dīn, nephew and son-in-law of Fīrūz S̲h̲āh Ḵh̲ald̲j̲ī of Dihlī, but Rāmačandra, the Yādava rād̲j̲a, was permitted to redeem the city by paying an indemnity and promising to pay tribute. In 1318 the town was attacked and captured by Ḳuṭb al-Dīn Mu…

is an ancient town of the Pand̲j̲ab situated in 30° 12′ N. and 71° 31′ E., and has been known at various times as Kas̲h̲tpūr, Hanspūr, Bāgpūr, Sanb or Sanābpūr, and finally Mulasthān, of which Multān is a corruption. This name is derived from that of the idol and temple of the sun, a shrine of vast wealth, which the Arabs, who plundered it, named dār al-d̲h̲ahab, or the house of gold. It remained the Arab capital, and the outpost of Islām in India, for three centuries but by a. d. 900 its ruler had become independent of Bag̲h̲dād. At this time it was seized by ʿAbd Allāh the Ḳarmaṭī,…

, Ḵh̲wād̲j̲a-i Ḏj̲ahān was a eunuch given by Sālār Rad̲j̲ab to his grandson Muḥammad, son of Fīrūz S̲h̲āh Tug̲h̲laḳ, in whose service he rose to be chief eunuch and controller of the elephant stables. He ¶ was faithful to his master in all his troubles, and in 1389 received the title of Ḵh̲wād̲j̲a-i Ḏj̲ahān and was made wazīr. Muḥammad’s son, Maḥmūd S̲h̲āh, sent him in March, 1394, to govern the eastern provinces, with his headquarters at Ḏj̲awnpūr, and conferred on him the title of Malik al-S̲h̲arḳ, or lord of the east. He took thither with him Ḳaran…

, Nāṣir al-Dīn, was the grandson of Fīrūz S̲h̲āh, of the Tug̲h̲luḳ dynasty, and was placed on the throne of Dihlī on March 8, 1393, on the death of his elder brother Humāyūn (Sikandar S̲h̲āh) and was never more than a puppet in the hands of intriguing ministers. The eunuch Sarwar, deputed by him to quell a Hindū rebellion in Awadh, received the title of Sulṭān al-S̲h̲ārḳ, and never returned to Dihlī, but established his independence in Ḏj̲awnpūr. Another amīr, Sārang Ḵh̲ān, became virtually independent in the Pand̲j̲āb, and the minister Saʿādat Ḵh̲ān, resenting his superse…

, Saiyid, of Dihlī, founder of the Saiyid dynasty (1414—1451), was the son of Malik Sulaimān, adopted son of Mardān Dawlat, one of the amīr’s of Fīrūz Tug̲h̲luḳ. Ḵh̲iḍr Ḵh̲ān succeeded to Mardān Dawlat’s fief of Multān, but was expelled in 1396, during the usurpation of Nuṣrat S̲h̲āh at Dihlī. When Tīmūr invaded India in 1398 Ḵh̲iḍr fled into Mewāt, but after the capture of Dihlī waited on the conqueror and received from him a grant of the fiefs of Multān and Dīpālpūr, where he remained independent during the remainder…

, a title, meaning “Lord of the (auspicious) conjunction”. Ḳirān means a conjunction of the planets, Ḳirān al-saʿdain (cf. the art. Saʿdān) a conjunction of the two auspicious planets (Jupiter and Venus), and Ḳirān al-naḥsain a conjunction of the two inauspicious planets (Saturn and Mars). In the title the word refers, of course, to the former only. The Persian i of the iḍāfa is omitted, as in Ṣāḥib-dil, by fakk-i-iḍāfa. The title was first assumed by the Amīr Tīmūr, who is said to have been born under a fortunate conjunction, but with whom its assumption was, of…

, the beautiful mausoleum erected at Āgra by the emperor S̲h̲āh Ḏj̲ahān [q.v.] for his dearly loved wife, Ad̲j̲umand Bānū Begum, of whose title, Mumtāz Maḥall, the name is a corruption. She was the daughter of Āṣaf Ḵh̲ān, brother of the famous Nūr Ḏj̲ahān [q. v.], and was married to S̲h̲āh Ḏj̲ahān on May 10, 1612, at the age of nineteen. She bore him ¶ fourteen children, and died in June, 1631, at Burhānpūr, after giving birth to a daughter. She was buried temporarily at Zainābād, a suburb of Burhānpūr, but her husband, who mourned her deeply, resolved to co…

(Safīd Kūh), “the White Mountain”, is the name given to the most prominent mountain range of Northern Afg̲h̲ānistān, extending from a point situated in 34° N. Lat and 69° 30′ E. Long., near which rises its highest point, Sikārām, 15,620 feet above the sea, to the neighbourhood of Ātak on the Indus (33° 15′ N. Lat. and 72° 10′ E. Long approximately), and separating the valley of the Kābul river from the Kurram Valley and Afrīdī Tirāh between these two points; but the range is continued in a mass o…

(p.), a landholder, the possessor of a landed estate. In Bengal these holdings are usually extensive and the zamīndār is responsible to the Government for the rent of his estate and also in some degree for the maintenance of order therein. In other parts of India zamīndārs have smaller estates, held sometimes in common, under a settlement periodically renewable. (T. W. Haig) Bibliography G̲h̲ulām Ḥusain Ḵh̲ān, Siyar al-Mutaʾak̲h̲k̲h̲irīn, Lucknow 1897 R. Orme, History of the military Transactions of the British Nation in Indostan, London 1805 Imperial Gazetteer of India, Oxford 190…

is the title by which Mīr Turāb ʿAlī, a Sayyid of Persian descent and one of the greatest of modern Indian statesmen, was best known. He was born at Ḥaidarābād in the Dakan on January 2, 1829, and, his father having died not long after his birth, was educated by his uncle, Nawwāb Sirād̲j̲ ul-Mulk, Minister of the Ḥaidarābād State. He received an administrative appointment in 1848, at the age of 19, and on his uncle’s death in 1853 succeeded him as Minister of the State. He was engaged in reform…

, Saʿd-al-Dīn, of Gud̲j̲arāt, was the son of Laṭīf Ḵh̲ān. third son of Muẓaffar II. On the death of Bahādur S̲h̲āh Muḥammad S̲h̲āh Fārūḳī of Ḵh̲āndes̲h̲. was offered the crown of Gud̲j̲arāt, but died on his way thither. The choice of the nobles then fell on Maḥmūd, the heir male, but his cousin, Mubārak II of Ḵh̲āndes̲h̲, in whose custody he was, and who had himself expected an offer of the crown of Gud̲j̲arāt, refused to surrender him, until an army from Gud̲j̲arāt compelled him to do so. The pr…

, of Ḵh̲āndes̲h̲, was the eleventh prince of the Fārūḳī dynasty. He belonged to the younger branch of that line, which had taken refuge in Gud̲j̲arāt, and his ancestors had lived in that kidgdom and had married princesses of the Muẓaffarī family until Maḥmūd I of Gud̲j̲arāt had, on the extinction of the elder branch of the Fārūḳīs, placed ʿĀdil Ḵh̲ān III, Muḥammad’s father, on the throne of Ḵh̲āndes̲h̲ Muḥammad, who was, through his mother, the great-grandson of Maḥmūd, and the grandson of his s…

(a., plur. Sāda), a prince, lord, chief, or owner: one who is eminent by means of his personal qualities, his possessions, or his birth. In this last sense it is used throughout the Muslim world almost exclusively of the descendants of Muḥammad (see the art. S̲h̲arīf). It occurs only twice in the Ḳurʾān, where it is used once (iii. 34) of John the Baptist, and once (xii. 25) of the husband of Zulaik̲h̲ā. By the Arabs it is applied not only to men, but to the d̲j̲inn, to animals, and to inanimate objects. A verse refers to “ d̲j̲inn, who are aroused by night, Summoning their chief (saiyid)”, …

, of Berār [q. v.], was founded by Fatḥ Allāh ʿImād al-Mulk, by birth a Brahman of Vid̲j̲ayanagar, who had been captured as a youth in an expedition of Aḥmad S̲h̲āh Bahmanī I to Vid̲j̲ayanagar and educated as a Muslim. He served under ʿAbd al-Ḳādir Ḵh̲ānd̲j̲ahān, governor of Berār, and in the reign of Muḥammad III Bahmanī succeeded his master. In 1490 Fatḥ Allāh followed the example of Aḥmad Niẓām al-Mulk of Aḥmadnagar and Yūsuf ʿĀdil Ḵh̲ān of Bīd̲j̲āpūr and declared himself independent, not fro…

is a Persian word (see Sar), the etymological meaning of which is “holding”, or “possessing the head”, i.e. the first place, its current meaning being a chief or leader and hence a military commander. It has been borrowed in this sense by the Turks, who, however, sometimes derive it in error from sirr-dār (“the keeper of a secret”). Through Turkish it has reached Arabic, and in a letter written in 1581 by “one of the princes of the Arabs (of Yaman)” occurs the phrase uwa ʿayyana sardāran ʿala ’l-ʿasākir” (“and he appointed a commander over the troops”) on which Rutgers comments “ Vocabuluin sardā…

, Las̲h̲karī, the thirteenth king of the Bahmanī dynasty of the Dak an, was the younger son of Humāyūn S̲h̲āh, and succeeded his elder brother, Niẓām S̲h̲āh, on July 30, 1463, at the age of nine. His minister was the famous Maḥmūd Gāwān, Malik al-Tud̲j̲d̲j̲ār, Ḵh̲wād̲j̲a Ḏj̲ahān. A compaign against Mālwa in 1467 was unsuccessful, but between 1469 and 1471 Maḥmūd Gāwān conquered the southern Konkan. In 1472 Malik Ḥasan Baḥrī, Niẓām al-Mulk, a Brahman who had been captured in Vid̲j̲ayanagar and educated as a Muslim, led a successful expediti…

, the governor of a province, or ṣūba [q. v.]. It was Akbar who first regularly divided the empire into provinces, styled ṣūba, but in his reign the title ṣūbadār was not in use, and the governor of a province is styled sipāhsālār (commander-in-chief) in the Āʾīn-i Akbarī. His successors employed the term ṣūbadār or ṣāḥib-ṣūba (lord of a province), but the use of these titles was neither uniform nor consistent. The governor or viceroy of the Dakan is usually styled ṣūbadār, but the governors of Awadh and Bangal are more often styled nawwāb-wazīr and nawwāb-nāẓim in the eighteenth century.…

, the name of a clan of the G̲h̲ilzai tribe of Afg̲h̲ānistān. A family of this tribe was established in Multān before India was invaded by Maḥmūd of G̲h̲aznī, for that district was ruled, in 1005, by Abu ’l-Fatḥ Dāwūd, grandson of S̲h̲aik̲h̲ Ḥamīd Lodī who had established himself there, but the importance of the tribe dates from the reign of Fīrūz Tug̲h̲luḳ when some of its members entered India for purposes of trade, but soon occupied themselves with politics. Dawlat Ḵh̲ān Lodī competed with Ḵh…

, the son of Ḥaidar ʿAlī [q.v.] of Maisūr, was born in 1753. His father employed him in many military operations, and on one occasion, in 1771, when he and his troops were not found where they were expected to be, publicly inflicted on him a most unmerciful beating. On his father’s death, on Dec. 7, 1783, he succeeded to the throne of Maisūr, and in 1784 he concluded peace with the British, with whom his father had been at war. In 1785 war broke out between Tīpū and the Marāthā Pīs̲h̲wā, who was…

means primarily the interior part of a country or town and hence a fortified castle, such as is occupied by a commander and his forces, and the town in which such a castle stands, the chief town of a district. It is also applied to a new well. In India, where it is locally pronounced ḳaṣba, it is applied to the chief town of a pargana or maḥall, which is the smallest subdivision of a fiscal district, and is distinct from the mawḍiʿ, the village or small town which is a complete fiscal unit, and from the mazraʿ or hamlet, which is included in the area and in the fiscal accounts of the mawḍiʿ of which it is …

(Deccan), derived from the Sanskrit word daks̲h̲ina, ‘the south’. As applied to India it means, etymologically, the whole of the southern part of the country, but convention has restricted its application to the tract bounded on the north by the Vindhya mountains and the Godāvarī, the natural boundaries between northern and southern India, on the east and west by the sea, and on the south by the river Krishna, the country to the south of that river being known as the Peninsula. The Dakhan consists of …

was the title bestowed by Awrangzīb on Mīr S̲h̲ihāb al-Dīn, elder son of ʿĀbid Ḵh̲ān, entitled Ḳilīd̲j̲ Ḵh̲ān, who rose to the rank of commander of 5,000 horse and held more than one provincial government under S̲h̲āhd̲j̲ahān. S̲h̲ihāb al-Dīn came from Turkistān to Awrangzīb’s court in 1669, and was appointed commander of 300 horse. During Awrangzīb’s reign he served with distinction in the suppression of Prince Akbar’s rebellion and in the long campaign in the Dakhan, especially at the sieges …

was the title conferred by the Mug̲h̲al emperor Ḏj̲ahāngīr on his third son, Ḵh̲urram, as a reward for his successes in the Dakan in 1616. Ḵh̲urram was ¶ born in 1592; in 1622 he caused his eldest brother, Ḵh̲usraw, whom his father had placed in his care, to be murdered, and afterwards rose in rebellion. Having been defeated in 1623 he became a.fugitive, but occupied Bengal and Bihār. In 1625 a peace was patched up between him and his father. When Ḏj̲ahāngīr died, in October, 1627, Ḵh̲urram was at Ḏj̲unnār in the Dakan, b…

, G̲h̲iyāt̲h̲ al-Dīn, was one of the eighteen sons of ʿAlāʾ al-Dīn Ḥusain S̲h̲āh of Bengal. He remained loyal to his eldest brother, Nāṣir al-Dīn Nuṣrat S̲h̲āh, throughout his reign, but after his death slew his son, ʿAlāʾ al-Dīn Fīrūz S̲h̲āh, in 1533, and ascended the throne. During a troubled reign of five years he never ruled the whole of Bengal. S̲h̲īr Ḵh̲ān Sūr, who ultimately ascended the throne of Dihlī, was already powerful in Bihār, and allied himself to Maḥmūd’s rebellious brother-in-law, Mak̲h̲dūm-i ¶ ʿĀlam, who was governor of Ḥād̲j̲d̲j̲īpūr. S̲h̲īr Ḵh̲ān defeated a…

, Nāṣir al-Dīn was the third of the Ḥabas̲h̲ī, or African Sulṭāns of Bengal. He succeeded his father in 1494, but was a mere puppet in the hands of one minister after another. His first minister, an African entitled Ḥabas̲h̲ Ḵh̲ān, was slain by a rival, another African known as Malik Badr the Madman, who afterwards slew Maḥmūd, he having occupied the throne for no more than six months, and usurped the throne. (T. W. Haig) Bibliography See maḥmūd 1 of Bengal.

was the title of the chief military and police officer of a sarkār (revenue district) under Muḥammadan rule in India. His duties were the maintenance of order, the punishment of rebels and rioters, and, frequently, the collection of the revenue. Though subordinate to the provincial authorities, the fawd̲j̲dār enjoyed the privilege of direct correspondence with the imperial court and the appointment was often a stepping-stone to the highest offices. The title of fawd̲j̲dār was also given, under the house of Tīmūr, to subordinate officers in the elephant stables. (T. W. Haig)

of G̲h̲azna, one of the most famous of Muslim conquerors, was the elder son of Subuktigīn and was born in 969 a. d. In 994 Nūḥ II of Buk̲h̲ārā appointed Subuktigīn governor of Ḵh̲urāsān, as a reward for assistance received from him, and Subuktigīn appointed as his deputy his son Maḥmūd, who took Nīs̲h̲āpūr from the Ismāʿīlī heretics and made it his capital. On his death in 997 Subuktigīn left his throne to his younger son, Ismāʿīl, but Maḥmūd marched to G̲h̲azna, defeated his brother, and ascended the throne in 999. Begtūzūn, an amīr of Manṣūr II of Buk̲h̲ārā, attempted to deprive Maḥmū…

, Tug̲h̲luḳ, the second king of the Tug̲h̲luḳ dynasty of Dihlī, was the eldest son of G̲h̲iyāt̲h̲ al-Dīn Tug̲h̲luḳ, its founder. During the short reign of the usurper, Nāṣir al-Dīn Ḵh̲usraw, he was in some peril, but escaped and joined his father, who was marching on Dihlī. He was known at first as Ḏj̲awna Ḵh̲ān, but received the title of Ulug̲h̲ Ḵh̲ān and was sent in 1321 to Warangal, to reduce to obedience the rād̲j̲ā, Pratāpa Rudradeva II. In this distant region he attempted to rebel, but his …

, S̲h̲ihāb al-Dīn, the fourteenth king of the Bahmanī dynasty of the Dakan, was raised to the throne at the age of twelve on the death of his father, Muḥammad III, on March 22, 1482, and remained under tutelage throughout his reign of thirty-six years. The ascendency of his first minister, Malik Ḥasan Baḥrī, Niẓām al-Mulk, who had been responsible for the death of Maḥmūd Gāwān [q. v.] was distasteful to the Foreign amīrs of the kingdom, at the head of whom was Yūsuf ʿĀdil Ḵh̲ān of Bid̲j̲āpūr, and the assassination of this minister, ordered by the young king, embitter…

, the name of a dynasty which reigned at Ḏj̲awnpūr, so called from the title of Malik al-S̲h̲arḳ (Lord of the East) conferred upon its founder, the eunuch Malik Sarwar, Ḵh̲wād̲j̲a Ḏj̲ahān [q.v.], who, having in March, 1393, placed Nāṣir al-Dīn Maḥmūd of the Tug̲h̲laḳ dynasty on the throne of Dihlī, suppressed the Hinds rebellions in the Gangetic Doāb and Awadh, and assumed independence in Ḏj̲awnpūr. He died in 1399, leaving his dominions to his adopted son, Malik Ḳaranful, who assumed the title of Mubārak S̲h̲āh. Maḥmūd S̲h̲…

is the nomen actionis of the second formation of the verb ḥaṣala, and signifies originally, “collection”, “obtaining” or “acquiring”. In India the use of the word is restricted to the collection of the revenue, and it is applied, in the United Provinces and Madras to a subdivision of a district (called taʿalluḳa, or, corruptly, ¶ tālūkā, in the Bombay Presidency) with an area of from 400 to 600 square miles, or less in the United Provinces, forming an administrative and fiscal unit. In size the taḥṣīl comes between the pargana and the sarkār of the Mug̲h̲ul empire, and the official in …

, Abu ’l-Mad̲j̲d Mad̲j̲dūd b. Ādam, of G̲h̲aznī, was one of the most famous poets at the court of the later G̲h̲aznavid kings, where his contemporaries were Saiyid Ḥasan, ʿUt̲h̲mān Muk̲h̲tārī, ʿAlī Fatḥī and Maḥmūd Warrāḳ. He gained his livelihood as a court poet by writing verses in praise of the king and of the leading men in the state, but one day, overhearing a wellknown eccentric of G̲h̲aznī drink confusion to “the wretched Sanāʾī, who spent his time in composing mendacious verses in praise of t…

, consists of the lower valley and delta of the river Indus (Sindhu) from which the province takes its name, and lies between 20° 35′ and 28° 39′ N. and 66° 40′ and 71° 10′ E. The Aryans were settled on the Indus before 1000 b. c. and about 500 b. c. Darius Hystaspes conquered the valley, but Persian rule in Sind had passed away when Alexander the Great traversed ¶ the country in 325 b. c. After his departure it was included first in the Mauryan empire and then in that of the Bactrian Greeks. From the first century before, until the seventh century after, Christ India w…

, founder of the short-lived Muḥammadan dynasty of Maisūr, was born in 1722, the son of Fatḥ Muḥammad Ḵh̲ān, a soldier of fortune, and a Navāyaṭ lady. He first distinguished himself at the siege of Devanhallī, captured in 1749 for the rād̲j̲ā of Maisūr by his minister Nand̲j̲arūd̲j̲, and was rewarded with the command of 50 horse and 200 foot. His advancement was rapid and he soon became fawd̲j̲dār of Dindigul and d̲j̲āgīrdār of Bangalor. He gained great credit by the success of his operations against the Marāṭhas in 1759 and was saluted as Fatḥ Ḥaidar Bahādur. He en…

, the sixth king of the Tug̲h̲luḳ dynasty of Dihlī, was the son of Fīrūz, at whose death the son of Fatḥ Ḵh̲ān, his eldest son, was raised to the throne on Sept. 20, 1388, as G̲h̲iyāt̲h̲ al-Dīn Tug̲h̲luḳ II, but was slain on Feb. 19, 1389, and was succeeded by his cousin Abū Bakr, son of Ẓafar Ḵh̲ān, the second son of Fīrūz. Muḥammad, the third son, contested the succession and, after suffering more than one defeat, occupied Dihlī and ascended the throne on Aug. 31, 1390. Abū Bakr took refuge wi…

called by the Arab geographers S̲h̲aburḳān and Sabūrḳān, is a town of northern Afg̲h̲ānistān, situated in 36° 35′ N., and 65° 45′ E. It was formerly one of the three chief towns of the district of Ḏj̲ūzd̲j̲ān, the others being Yāhūdīya and Fāryāb. The oldest form of the name is Asapuragān, from which it has been conjectured that it was an ancient seat of the Asa, or Asargartii. ʿAzīzī describes it as the capital of Ḏj̲ūzd̲j̲ān, but this position is usually accorded to Yāhūdīya. It lay on the ol…

, a city situated in 21° 12′ N. and 72° 50′ E. on the south bank of the Taptī and ten miles from its mouth. The geographer Ptolemy (a. d. 150), speaks of the trade ¶ of Pulipula, perhaps Phulpāda, the sacred part of Sūrat city. Early references to Sūrat by Muslim historians must be scrutinized, owing to the confusion of the name with Sorath (Saurās̲h̲tra), but in 1373 Fīrūz Tug̲h̲luḳ built a fort to protect the place against the Bhīls. The foundation of the modern city is traditionally assigned to the beginning of the sixteenth c…

, the northern route between Afg̲h̲ānistān and India, leading from Kābul to Pes̲h̲āwar. The pass runs from Dakka to Ḏj̲amrūd and is about thirty-three miles long, its centre lying in 34°6’ N. and 71° 5’ E. Its highest point, Landī Kotal, is 3,378 feet above sea-level. Alexander the Great probably sent the division of his army under Hephaestion and Perdiccas through the Ḵh̲aibar, while he himself followed the northern bank of the Kābul river and crossed the Kūnar valley into Bād̲j̲awr and Sawād. Maḥmūd of G̲h̲azna used the pass only once, wh…

is an Arabic substantive from the verbal root ṣūba, yaṣūbu (“it poured forth”) meaning primarily a collection, or heap of wheat, dates, earth, etc. In the reign of Akbar it was adopted as the official description of the great provinces of India, to which historians had previously applied such words as s̲h̲iḳḳ, k̲h̲iṭṭa, etc. Akbar’s empire consisted at first of twelve and finally of fifteen ṣūbas, named either from their capitals, as in the case of Dihlī, Āgra, and Ilāhābād, or from the old names of the tracts which they covered, as in the case of the Pand̲j̲…

, the name of a dynasty which ruled Herāt from 1245 to 1389 a. d. It was founded by S̲h̲ams al-Dīn Muḥammad I, Kart, who was descended from the S̲h̲ansabānī house of G̲h̲ūr, the family to which the brothers G̲h̲iyāth al-Dīn Muḥammad and Muʿizz al-Dīn Muḥammad b. Sām belonged. As Herāt recovered from the devastating raids of the armies of Čingiz Ḵh̲ān, S̲h̲ams al-Dīn gradually gained power, and by 1245 had established himself as ruler of the state, and used the title of Malik, borne by his descendants. In 1251…

, name of a city, situated in 27° 31′ N. latitude and 77° 41′ E. longitude, and of a district of the same name in Northern India. The site of the city was of importance in the Buddhist period, as is proved by the numerous inscriptions and pieces of sculpture that have been fouūd there. In later Hindu times it attained sanctity as the reputed birthplace of the god Krishna and the temples erected there acquired great wealth and reputation. In 1017 Maḥmūd of G̲h̲azna [q. v.] captured the city and l…

, the name of a river, town and district in Northern Afg̲h̲ānistān. The district is bounded on the east by Badak̲h̲s̲h̲ān, on the west by Tas̲h̲kurg̲h̲ān, on the north by the Oxus, and on the south by the Hindū Kus̲h̲, and is inhabited chiefly by Özbegs, who overran it from the north in the sixteenth century. The river rises in the Hindū Kus̲h̲, flows northward and is one of only two rivers in northern Afg̲h̲ānistān which reach the Oxus. The town is the trade centre of a considerable district which produces the best horses in Afg̲h̲ānistān. (T. W. Haig) Bibliography Ẓahīr al-Dīn Muḥammad Bābur, Bā…

, a city of northern India in the uppermost part of the Ganges-D̲j̲amnā Doʾāb (lat. 29° 57′ N., long. 77° 33′ E.), now in the extreme northwestern tip of the Uttar Pradesh State of the Indian Union. It was founded in ca. 740/1340, in the reign of Muḥammad b. Tug̲h̲luḳ [ q.v.] and was named after a local Muslim saint, S̲h̲āh Haran Čis̲h̲tī. The city and district suffered severely during the invasion of Tīmūr; in 932/1526 Bābur traversed them on his way to Pānīpat, and some local Mug̲h̲al colonies trace their origin to his followers. Muslim influe…

(p.), a form current in Muslim India, passing into Urdu and Hindi and derived from Pers. s̲h̲ikar “game, prey; the chase, hunting”, with the senses of “a native hunter or stalker, who accompanied European hunters and sportsmen”, and then of these last sportsmen themselves (see Yule and Burnell, Hobson-Jobson , a glossary of Anglo-Indian colloquial words and phrases, 2London 1903, 827-8, s.v. Shikaree , Shekarry ). The native hunters stemmed from the many castes in India whose occupation was the snaring, trapping, tracking, or pursuit of …

(p.), often Arabised as Sirdār , “supreme military commander”, literally “holding or possessing the head”, i.e. chief or leader. It was borrowed in the military sense by the Turks, who, however, sometimes derive it in error from sirrdār (“the keeper of a secret”). Through Turkish it has reached Arabic, and in a letter written in 989/1581 by “one of the princes of the Arabs (of Yaman)” occurs the phrase wa-ʿayyana sardār an ʿala ’l-ʿasākir (“and he appointed a commander over the troops”), on which Rutgers comments “Vocabulum sardār , quod Persicae originis est, ducem …

proper is an inland district of India bordered on the south by Vindhyās, and lying between lat. 23° 30′ N. and long. 74° 30′ E. To this tract, known in the age of the Mahābhārata as Nishadha, and later as Avanti, from the name of its capital, now Ud̲j̲d̲j̲ayn, was afterwards added Akara, or eastern Mālwā, with its capital, Bhīlsā, and the country lying between the Vindhyās and the Sātpūras. Primitive tribes like Ābhīras and Bhīls have been dwelling among the hills and jungles of Mālwā since ancient times, s…

, of K̲h̲āndēs̲h̲ [ q.v.] in western India, was the eleventh prince of the Fārūḳī dynasty (regn. 926-43/1520-37). He belonged to the younger branch of that line, which had taken refuge in Gud̲j̲arāt, and his ancestors had lived in that kingdom and had married princesses of the Muẓaffarī family until Maḥmūd I of Gud̲j̲arāt [ q.v.] had, on the extinction of the elder branch of the Fārūḳīs, placed ʿĀdil K̲h̲ān III, Muḥammad’s father, on the throne of K̲h̲āndēs̲h̲. Muḥammad, who was, through his mother, the great-grandson of Maḥmūd, and the grandson of …

(Sir), the title by which Mīr Turāb ʿAlī, a Sayyid of Persian descent and one of the greatest of modern Indian statesmen, was best known. He was born at Ḥaydarābād, Deccan, on 2 January, 1829, and, his father having died not long after his birth, was educated by his uncle, Nawwāb Sirād̲j̲ al-Mulk, Minister of the Ḥaydarābād State. He received an administrative appointment in 1848, at the age of 19, and on his uncle’s death in 1853 succeeded him as Minister of the State. He was engaged in reforming the administration unt…

(possibly kurt), the name of a dynasty which ruled Herāt from 643/1245 to 791/1389. It was founded by S̲h̲ams al-Dīn Muḥammad I Kart, who was descended from the S̲h̲ansabānī house of G̲h̲ūr, the family to which the brothers G̲h̲iyāt̲h̲ al-Dīn Muḥammad and Muʿizz al-Dīn Muḥammad b. Sām belonged. As Herat recovered from the devastating raids of the armies of Čingiz K̲h̲ān, S̲h̲ams al-Dīn gradually gained power, and by 643/1245 had established himself as ruler of the state, and used the title of Mal…

, the older Indian Sindhu , the name for the region around the lower course of the Indus river (from which the region takes its name, see mihrān ), i.e. that part of the Indus valley south of approximately lat. 28° 30’ N., and the delta area, now coming within the modern state of Pākistān. There are alluvial soils in the delta and in the lands along the river, liable to inundation when the river ¶ rises in spring from the melting snows of the northern Indian mountains and rendered fertile by a network of irrigation canals and channels for flood control. To the west of …

(759-76/1358-75), the second king of the Bahmanī dynasty of the Dakan, was the eldest son of Ḥasan, ʿAlāʾ al-Dīn Bahman S̲h̲āh, usually, but incorrectly, styled Ḥasan Gangū. On succeeding his father, on 1 Rabīʿ I 759/11 February 1358, he carefully organised the government of the four provinces of the kingdom and the administration of the army. The pertinacity of the Hindū bankers and moneychangers in melting down the gold coinage which he introduced led to a general massacre of the community and…

, S̲h̲ams al-Dīn Las̲h̲karī (867-87/1463-82), the thirteenth king of the Bahmanī dynasty of the Dakan, was the younger son of Humāyūn S̲h̲āh, and succeeded his elder brother, Niẓām S̲h̲āh, on 13 D̲h̲u ’l-Ḳaʿda 867/30 ¶ July 1463, at the age of nine. His minister was the famous Maḥmūd Gāwān, Malik al-Tud̲j̲d̲j̲ār, K̲h̲wād̲j̲a D̲j̲ahān [ q.v.]. A campaign against Mālwā in 871/1467 was unsuccessful, but between 873/1469 and 875/1471 Maḥmūd Gāwān conquered the southern Konkan. In 876/1472 Niẓām al-Mulk Malik Ḥasan Baḥrī, a Brāhman who had been captured…

(p.), from the Persian sipah , sipāh “army”, hence basically meaning soldier. It has given such European words as English sepoy (see below, 2.) and French spahi (see below, 3.). 1. In the Ottoman empire. Here, sipāhī had the more specific meaning of “cavalryman” in the feudal forces of the empire, in contrast to the infantrymen of the professional corps of the Janissaries [see yeñi čeri ]. Such feudal cavalrymen were supported by land grants ( dirlik “living, means of livelihood”) at different levels of income yield. Below the k̲h̲āṣṣ [ q.v.] lands granted to members of the higher ech…

, ville de l’Inde septentrionale, dans la partie extrême du Gange-Ḏj̲amnā Dōʾāb (lat. 29° 57´ N., long. 77° 33´ E.), actuellement à l’extrémité Nord de l’Etat d’Uttar Pradesh, dans l’Union Indienne. Elle fut fondée vers 740/1340, sous le règne de Muhammed b. Tug̲h̲luḳ et prit son nom de celui d’un saint musulman local, S̲h̲āh Haran Čis̲h̲tī. La cité et le district souffrirent beaucoup durant l’invasion de Tīmūr; et en 932/1526,. Bābur les traversa en faisant ¶ route vers Pānīpat, et quelques colonies mug̲h̲ales locales font remonter leur origine aux gens qui l’accompag…

(p.), forme courante en Inde musulmane, passée en ourdou et en hindi, dérivée du persan s̲h̲ikār «jeu, proie, chasse», et ayant pris le sens de «chasseur ou rabatteur indigène chargé d’accompagner les chasseurs et sportifs européens», et de là, ces derniers eux-mêmes (voir Yule et Burnell, Hobson-Jobson, a glossary of Anglo-Indian colloquial words and phrases, 2Londres 1903, 827-8, s.v. Shikaree, Shekarry). Les chasseurs indigènes provenaient des nombreuses castes qui faisaient métier de prendre au piège, au lacet, à forcer à la trace, ou à poursuivre les…

, Muʿizz al-dīn, quatrième des princes S̲h̲anzabānides de G̲h̲ūr à régner sur l’empire de G̲h̲aznī [voir G̲h̲azna et G̲h̲ūrides]. Son laḳab, à l’origine, était S̲h̲ihāb al-dīn, mais il prit celui de Muʿizz al-dīn. Son frère aîné, G̲h̲iyāt̲h̲ al-dīn, succéda à son cousin Sayf al-dīn en 558/1163 et nomma Muḥammad gouverneur de Harāt, lui confiant également le soin de développer les possessions de sa famille dans l’Inde. Muḥammad conduisit sa première expédition dans l’Inde en 571/1175, repoussa les hérétiques ismāʿīliens qui gouvernaient Multān, plaça un gouvern…

(a. et p.), titre signifiant «Seigneur de la Conjonction (favorable)», Ḳirān désigne une conjonction de planètes; ḳirān al-saʿdayn [voir al-Saʿdān], la conjonction de deux planètes favorables (Jupiter et Vénus), et ḳirān al-naḥsayn la conjonction de deux planètes défavorables (Saturne et Mars). Dans le titre en question, la formule représente évidemment la première. Le i de l’ iḍāfa persane est omis, comme dans ṣāḥib-dil, en vertu du fakk-i iḍāfa. Le titre fut porté d’abord par l’ amīr Tīmūr, que l’on disait né sous une conjonction favorable, mais pour lequel il s’agis…

, nom d’un district situé à l’intérieur de l’Inde entre 23° 30′ et 24° 30′ delat. N. et à 70° 30′ de long. E. et limité au Sud par les Vindhyās. A cette région, appelée Nishadha à l’époque du Mahābhārata, puis Avanti, du nom de son chef-lieu (auj. Ud̲j̲d̲j̲ayn), furent annexés par la suite l’Akara ou Mālwā oriental avec Bhflsâ pour chef-lieu, et le pays s’étendant entre les Vindhyās et les Sātpūras. Des tribus primitives telles que les Ābhīras et les Bhīls occupent les hauteurs et les jungles du Mālwā depuis des temps anciens, et cer…

(759-76/1358-75), deuxième roi de la dynastie bahmanide du Deccan, était le fils aîné de Ḥasan ʿAlāʾ al-dīn Bahman S̲h̲āh, appelé ordinairement, mais à tort, Ḥasan Gangû. En succédant à son père, le 1er rabīʿ I 759/11 février 1358, il organisa avec soin le gouvernement des quatre provinces ¶ du royaume et l’administration de l’armée. L’entêtement des banquiers et des changeurs hindous qui persistaient à fondre les monnaies d’or émises par lui finit par un massacre général de la communauté, et cette mesure l’entraîna dans des hostilités avec …

(Sir), titre sous lequel était le plus connu Mīr TurābʿAlī, Sayyid de descendance persane, et un des plus grands hommes d’Etat de l’Inde moderne. Il était né à Ḥaydarābād dans le Deccan, le 2 janvier 1829, et, son père étant mort peu après sa naissance, il fut élevé par son oncle, Nawwāb Sirād̲j̲ almulk, ministre de l’Etat de Haydarābād. En 1848, à l’āge de 19 ans, il eut un emploi administratif; en 1853, son oncle mourut, et il lui succéda comme ministre d’Etat. Il s’occupa à réformer l’administration jusqu’en 1857, a…

(p.), du persan sipah, sipāh «armée, et de là au départ, soldat». Le mot a donné des vocables européens comme l’anglais sepoy (voir plus bas, 2.) et le français cipaye, et spahi (voir plus bas, 3.). 1. Dans l’empire ottoman. Sipāhī avait ici le sens plus précis de «cavalier» dans les forces féodales de l’empire, par opposition avec les fantassins du corps professionnel des Janissaires [voir Yeñi Čeri]. Ces cavaliers féodaux étaient entretenus grāce à des attributions foncières ( dirlik, «moyens d’existence») assorties de revenus à divers niveaux. Au-dessous du k̲h̲āṣṣ [ q.v.], ou terre…

, de Ḵh̲āndēs̲h̲ [ q.v.], dans l’Inde occidentale, fut le onzième prince de la dynastie fārūḳie (926-43/1520-37). Il appartenait à la branche cadette qui s’était réfugiée au Gud̲j̲arāt: ses ancêtres avaient vécu dans ce royaume et y avaient épousé des princesses de la famille Muẓaffarī jusqu’à l’époque où Maḥmūd Ier du Gud̲j̲arāt [ q.v.], à l’extinction de la branche aînée des Fārūḳis, plaça ʿĀdil Ḵh̲ān III, père de Muḥammad, sur le trône de Ḵh̲āndēs̲h̲. Muḥammad, qui était, par sa mère, l’arrière petitfils de Maḥmūd et le petitfils du fils de ce …

Ḥad̲j̲gjī Mīrzā Ḏj̲ānī. Historien bābī, était un marchand de Kās̲h̲ān, qui, avec deux de ses trois frères, Ḥād̲j̲d̲j̲ī Mīrzā Ismāʿīl Ḍabīḥ et Ḥād̲j̲d̲j̲ī Mīrzā Aḥmad, fut l’un des plus anciens disciples de Mīrzā ʿAlī Muḥammad, le Bāb [ q.v.]. Lorsque, en 1847, le Bāb fut conduit d’Iṣfahān à sa prison de Mākū, les frères obtinrent de son escorte de lui permettre d’être leur hôte à Kās̲h̲ān pendant deux jours et deux nuits. L’année suivante, Kās̲h̲ānī, avec Bahāʾ Allāh, Subḥ-i Azal et d’autres éminents disciples, tenta de se joindre aux insurgés bābis du s̲h̲ayk̲h̲ Ṭabarsī près de Bārfur…

, anciennement Sindhu, nom donné à la région entourant le cours inférieur du fleuve Indus (qui donna son nom à la région, voir Mihrān), à savoir la partie de la vallée de l’Indus située au Sud du parallèle 28° 30´ N. environ, et la région du delta, toutes deux faisant aujourd’hui partie de l’Etat moderne du Pākistān. On trouve des terres alluviales dans le delta et le long du fleuve: elles sont soumises aux inondations lors de la crue du fleuve au printemps, due à la fonte des neiges des montagnes du Nord de l’Inde. Elles deviennent fertiles grāce à u…

(780-99/1378-97), cinquième roi de la dynastie bahmanide du Deccan, était le fils de Maḥmūd Ḵh̲ān, le plus jeune fils de ʿAlāʾ al-dīn Bahman S̲h̲āh, le fondateur de la dynastie; il fut élevé au trône le 21 muḥarram 780/20 mai 1378, après l’assassinat de son oncle Dāwūd S̲h̲āh. L’assertion de Firis̲h̲ta d’après laquelle le nom de ce roi était Maḥmūd a induit en erreur tous les historiens européens, mais elle est réfutée par les inscriptions, les légendes des monnaies et d’autres documents historiques. Muḥammad II était un homme pacifique, adonné aux lettres et à la poésie, et …

, «la tête du pont», nommé par les géographes arabes Raʾs al-ḳanṭara, est une ville du Turkestan afg̲h̲ān (lat. 36° 13ʹ N., long. 65° 55ʹ E., ait. 610 m), sur l’Abi Safīd, près du pont dont elle prend son nom. Il ne faut pas la confondre avec un village près de Samarḳand ni avec un quartier de Nīs̲h̲āpūr, qui portent tous deux le même nom et ont autant d’importance historique que la ville afg̲h̲āne. Entre les éperons nord du Paropamisus et les sables du Sud de l’Oxus, dans une région fertile bie…

, S̲h̲ams al-dīn Las̲h̲karī (86787/1463-82), treizième roi de la dynastie bahmanide du Deccan, était le plus jeune fils de Humāyūn S̲h̲āh: il succéda à son frère aîné, Niẓām S̲h̲āh, le 13 d̲h̲ū l-ḳaʿda 867/30 juillet 1463, à l’âge de neuf ans. Son ministre fut le célèbre Maḥmūd Gāwān, Malik al-Tud̲j̲d̲j̲ār, Ḵh̲wād̲j̲a Ḏj̲ahān [ q.v.]. Une campagne contre Malwā en 871/1467 fut sans succès, mais entre 873 et 875/1469-71, Maḥmūd Gāwān conquit le Konkan méridional. En 876/1472, Niẓām al-mulk Malik Ḥasan Bahrī, un Brahmane qui avait été pris à Vid̲j̲ay…

, officiellement Sialkot, ville du Pand̲j̲āb, située à 32° 30′ N. et 74° 32′ E.; la légende attribue sa fondation à Rād̲j̲ā Sālā, l’oncle du Pāṇḍavas, et sa restauration à Rād̲j̲ā Sālivāhan, à l’époque de Vikramāditya. Sālivāhan eut deux fils : l’un, Pūran, tué à l’instigation d’une mauvaise belle-mère, et jeté dans un puits qui est encore un lieu de pèlerinage, près de la ville; l’autre, Rasālu, le héros mythique des légendes populaires du Pand̲j̲āb, qui passe pour avoir régné à Siyālkūt. En l’…

, ville portuaire de l’Inde occidentale, sur la rive Sud du Tāptī, à environ 16 km en amont du débouché du fleuve sur le golfe de Cambay (lat. 21° 10ʹ N., long. 72° 54ʹ E.). Le géographe Ptolémée (150 de notre ère) parle du commerce à Pulipula, peut-être Phulpāda, le quartier sacré de la ville de Sūrat. Les références anciennes à Sūrat chez les historiens arabes doivent être examinées de près, en raison de la confusion possible avec Sorath (Saurās̲h̲tra), mais en 774/1373 Fīrūz S̲h̲āh Tug̲h̲luḳ III édifia un fort destiné à protég…

(peut-être également Kurt), nom d’une dynastie qui gouverna Herāt de 643 à 791/12451389. Elle fut fondée par S̲h̲ams al-dm Muḥammad Ier ¶ Kart, descendant de la famille des S̲h̲ansabānī de G̲h̲ūr, à laquelle appartenaient les frères G̲h̲iyāt̲h̲ al-dīn Muḥammad et Muʿizz al-dīn Muḥammad b. Sām. La région de Herāt se remettait alors des incursions des armées de Čingiz Ḵh̲ān qui l’avaient dévastée, et S̲h̲ams al-dīn, dont la puissance ne cessait de croître,en était devenu, vers 643/1245, le souverain; il s’était même conféré le titre de malik que ses descendants conservèrent. Lorsq…

, Abū S̲h̲ubjāʿ ʿIzz al-dīn, Atabeg turc du Fārs, de la lignée salg̲h̲uride [ q.v.]; il régna à S̲h̲īrāz de 599/1202-3, sans doute jusqu’en 623/1226. A la mort de son frère aîné Takin/Tekele (Degele, etc.?) b. Zangī en 594/1198, Saʿd revendiqua le pouvoir ¶ au Fārs, mais ses droits furent contestés par son cousin Ṭog̲h̲ri̊l, fils de Sunḳur, frère aîné de son père, qui avait fondé la dynastie. Pendant neuf ans, Ṭog̲h̲ri̊l garda la couronne royale, mais au cours de ces neuf années, la guerre continua entre lui et son cousin sans amener de …

(p.), souvent arabisé en Sirdār, «chef militaire suprême», litt. «tenant ou occupant la tête», c.-à-d. chef ou commandant. Le mot a été emprunté dans son sens militaire par les Turcs, qui le font parfois dériver, par erreur, de sirr-dār («le dépositaire d’un secret»). Par le turc, il est passé en arabe, et dans une lettre écrite en 989/1581 par «un des princes des Arabes (du Yémen)» apparaît la phrase: «wa-ʿayyana sardāran ʿalā l-ʿasākir» («et il désigna un chef pour être à la tête des troupes»); Rutgers explique ainsi ce mot: «Vocabulum sardār, quod Persicae originis est, ducem exercitus …

Muʿizz al-dīn, deuxième roi de la dynastie des Sayyids de Dihli; il était le fils de Ḵh̲iḍr Ḵh̲ān [ q.v.], le premier roi, et il succéda à son père le 19 d̲j̲umādā 1 824/22 mai 1421. Son royaume se limitait alors à quelques districts de l’Hindūstān proprement dit et à Multān, et il dut renoncer à sa tentative visant à établir sa souveraineté sur le Pand̲j̲āb; il se trouva en effet dans la nécessité de secourir Gwalior, menacée par Hūs̲h̲ang de Mālwā, qui leva le siège et eut une rencontre avec lui, mais, après une bataille indécise, il s’arrangea avec lui et se retira à Mālwā [ q.v.]. De 828 à 830/14…