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Hell is the subterranean world as imagined in Christianity and Islam (and, more equivocally, in Judaism, cf. [14]) in which the damned among the dead are punished for their sins (Afterlife). Until well into the early modern period, church teaching was still conditioned by the view of the Church Father Augustine: because of original sin weighing upon all people, eternal punishment in hell awaited most of the progeny of Adam and Eve after their earthly lives. Two measures could save the individual from this fate:…

1. Theocentric view Christianity describes heaven as a transcendental locale beyond the material world, the residence of God, the angels and saints, where the faithful are rewarded with eternal life (Afterlife). Christian piety and theology preserved throughout the early modern period the medieval view that offered a theocentric description of the nature of heaven. In heaven, the blessed were said to encounter God, beholding and praising him. The Protestants remained wedded to this view, John Calvi…

1. Traditions The very ancient belief in the existence and work of (good or evil) angels (from Gk ángelos, “[divine] messenger”) is taken for granted in Christianity and Islam. On into the 18th century it took its lead from the biblical narratives of angels as divine messengers and interpreters; on divine instructions they give advice to human beings and protect them from adversarial powers. Individuals, but also communities and even entire peoples have their guardian angel. And God’s angels in particular lead th…