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, brother of Maliks̲h̲āh who, on the death of the latter, seized possession of Ḵh̲urāsān and the province of Balk̲h̲. defeated and put to death another brother, Buribars, who had been sent against him (488/1095), but incurred odium as a result of his punitive measures against the supporters of his defeated brother and his destruction, as a preventative measure, of the ramparts of Marw, Nīs̲h̲āpūr, Sarak̲h̲s, Sabzawār etc.; he was finally killed in 490 by one of his slaves. His young son, aged seven, was easily swept aside by Sand̲j̲ar, the brother and lieutenant of the Sulṭān Barkyāruḳ. ¶ …

Dāwūd b. Mīk̲h̲āʾīl b. Sald̲j̲ūḳ was the brother of Ṭug̲h̲ri̊l-Beg [ q.v.], and the co-founder with him of the Sald̲j̲ūḳid dynasty. The careers of both brothers were, for the most part, inextricably bound together. It is difficult to ascertain which was the elder brother. They seem to have been born about 380-385/990-995, and there is no evidence whether their family was already, or only later became, Muslim. Little is known about their life before the year 416/1025. They were orphaned at an early age, and…

, the name of two viziers of the early Būyids, the first of them known also as a man of letters: (1) Abu ’l-Faḍl Muḥammad b. al-Ḥusayn b. Muḥammad was the son of a pedlar or wheat merchant in the S̲h̲īʿī town of Ḳumm in central Iran who later became a kātib in K̲h̲urāsān, where he received the title of ʿamīd [ q.v.] which was in this region usually given to high officials. He appears at Buk̲h̲ārā ( Mat̲h̲ālib , 232-6) at an unknown date, perhaps later than his appearance in 321/933 as vizier of Was̲h̲mgīr [ q.v.] in Rayy, and in 323 as one of the chief dignitaries of Mardāwid̲j̲ just before…

, Nāṣir al-Dīn Muḥammad b. ʿAbd al-Raḥīm b. ʿAlī al-Miṣrī al-Ḥanafī (735-807/1334-1405), Egyptian historian, author of a vast universal history, Taʾrīk̲h̲ al-duwal wa ’l-mulūk , of which he finished completely only the volumes covering the years after 500/1106-7. The majority of the fragments which survive (mainly in Vienna) are autographs and the work does not seem to have been much copied, or indeed much valued in its own time (perhaps because of suspicions concerning its style and orthodoxy), a…

(Muḥ. b. ʿAlī b. Muḥ., Abū ʿAbd Allāh al-Tanūk̲h̲ī. called~) (483/1090-post 556/1161), chronicler of Aleppo. A full but dry universal history—mainly Syrian—by him, which extends to the year 538/1143-44 (published by me—from the year 455/1063—in J A , 1938, 353-448), has come down to us, but in addition, he composed above all a great History of Aleppo which was used copiously especially by Kamāl al-Dīn b. al-ʿAdīm and Ibn Abī Ṭayyī (the latter up to 556/1161). The interest of the portions of al-ʿAẓimi’s work which have been prese…

, Abū Ṭāhir Muḥammad , vizier to the Būyid ʿIzz al-Dawla Bak̲h̲tiyār [ q.v.], whose history is perhaps difficult to relate objectively since the chroniclers, who wrote from the point of view of the military or bureaucratic aristocracy, were a priori hostile to a parvenu such as he. Coming from a peasant family of Awana (Upper ʿIrāḳ), he had taken advantage of the disturbances during the first half of the 4th/10th century to organize a force which had seized control of the tolls on the Tigris at Takrīt. At the time of the conquest of ʿ…

, double plural of d̲j̲ālī (through the intermediate form d̲j̲āliya which is also found, particularly in old papyri), literally “émigrés”, a term which, in administrative usage, very soon served to denote the d̲j̲izya [ q.v.]. Ancient writers believed that the word had originally been applied to the poll-tax on the d̲h̲immī s who were émigrés (driven out) from Arabia; some modern writers have thought that it could have taken on its meaning, by extension, from a term used of the tax on the Jewish community in “Exile” d̲j̲ālūt: there is no trace of any such specific use. It would se…

, literally "young men", a kind of urban militia which plays a considerable role in the cities of Syria and Upper Mesopotamia from the 4th/10th to the 6th/12th centuries, and is particularly well known at Aleppo and Damascus. Officially, its role is that of a police, charged with public order, fire-fighting, etc., and also, in time of need, with military defence in reinforcement of the regular troops. For these services the aḥdāt̲h̲ receive stipends allocated from the product of certain urban taxes. The only distinction between them and any or…

(Grk. Antizene, in Yāḳut Hinzīt), name of the province and of the basin enclosed between the great bend of the Euphrates to the NNW of Malaṭya and the D̲j̲abal Baharmaz, with the “little lake” Göld̲j̲ük (Ar. al-Buḥayra) of Dzovk (Ar. al-Baḥīratān) at its foot ; one of the great communication routes of history passes from here towards the Tigris sources. This region of K̲h̲anzīt was for long Armenian (in the 6th/12th century the Catholicos of the Armenian Church resided at Dzovk) ; after being co…

, Abū ʿAlī , one of the leading figures of the Būyid régime at the end of the 4th/10th century. His father, Ustād̲h̲-Hurmuz, one of the ḥud̲j̲d̲j̲āb of ʿAḍud al-Dawla, is said to have been born in about 300/912; on entering the service of the son and successor of the great Būyid in Fārs, S̲h̲araf al-Dawla, he became governor of ʿUmān for him and then, wishing to transfer his allegiance to the other son, Ṣamṣām al-Dawla, master of ʿIrāḳ, he had to return to private life (374/984). The son, Ḥasan, who…

(a.), wood. In the major part of the Muslim world, wood is fairly scarce and for this reason plays a relatively minor rôle in the material life of its populations in comparison with that of societies in which it is more plentiful. However, precisely because its use is limited, it occupies an important place in artistic creation, for example in private furniture and the appurtenances of mosques. Architecturally, it is employed for doors, roofs, arches, etc. and ceilings; it is also used in the ga…

, name of three-Sald̲j̲ūḳid sultans of Rum. Kayk̲h̲usraw i , son and one of the successors of Kilid̲j̲ Arslān II [ q.v.]. When the latter, at the age of about seventy, decided ca. 583/1187 to divide his territories among his ten sons, a brother and a nephew, G̲h̲iyāth al-Dīn Kayk̲h̲usraw got Sozopolis or Uluborlu, on the borders of the Byzantine territory, perhaps because he was the son of a Byzantine mother. He thus came in contact with Greek Christians on one side, with groups of Turkmen frontier warriors ( ud̲j̲ ) who were pushing forward in that direction on…

, Yaḥyā b. Ḥamīd al-Nad̲j̲d̲j̲ār al-Ḥalabī (575/1180- ca. 625-30/1228-33), an important S̲h̲īʿī historian of Aleppo, and in particular the author of a universal History, Maʿādin al-d̲h̲ahab fi taʾrīk̲h̲ al-mulūk wa ’l-k̲h̲ulafāʾ wa d̲h̲awi ’l-ratab , which even the Sunnī writers, whether or not they acknowledge the fact, were unable to refrain from utilizing. Important extracts from it are to be found preserved in the History of Ibn al-Furāt [ q.v.] and the Rawḍatayn of Abū S̲h̲āma [ q.v.], dealing with the first three-quarters of the 6th/12th century; it was known also …

, Ḍiyāʾ al-Dīn Muḥammad b. Muḥammad b. Aḥmad al-Ḳuras̲h̲ī al-S̲h̲āfiʿī , known as Ibn al-Uk̲h̲uwwa, author of a manual of ḥisba , enlarging, from an Egyptian point of view, that of the Syrian writer of the previous century, al-S̲h̲ayzarī. It was published by R. Levy, with an analysis in English, under the doubtful title of Maʿālim al-ḳurba fī aḥkām al-ḥisba ( GMS, n.s. xii, London 1938); according to the only biographical notice so far discovered, that by Ibn Ḥad̲j̲ar ( Durar , Ḥaydarābād no. 446), the author died in 729/1329, and nothing more is known of him. (Cl. Cahen) Bibliography In addit…

verbal noun of the fourth form of the root w.g̲h̲.r . (?), meaning here an exemption or a privilege with respect to taxes. The classical ʿAbbāsid administration used This term both for the privilege, and for the land which was covered by This privilege, of having to pay only one single tax payment, directly to the Treasury and not through tax-collectors. The districts of Mard̲j̲ and Karad̲j̲ in western Iran are regularly referred to as al-Ig̲h̲ārayn even after they had lost the official status which earned them This name. In the following centuries the term īg̲h̲ār d…

, name of two Sald̲j̲ūḳid sultans of Rūm (Asia Minor). Kaykāʾūs I . Succeeding his father Kayk̲h̲usraw I [ q.v.] after the battle in which the latter perished (608/1211), he at first had to rid himself of the rivalry of his brothers Kayferīdūn and Kayḳubād̲h̲ [ q.v.]. After that he had no further internal difficulties. His reign is particularly marked by the combination of a policy of peace towards the Greeks of Nicaea with interventions on the southern, northern and eastern frontiers. In the south, where Kayk̲h̲usraw had taken Anṭāliya, he…

, name of one of the Kurdish chieftains (and of the dynasty descended from him) who, in the 4th/10th century and at the beginning of the 5th/11th century, succeeded in founding and maintaining in Western Iran and Upper Mesopotamia more or less autonomous and lasting principalities. Ḥasanwayh b. Ḥusayn (Abu ’l-Fawāris) belonged to a branch of the Kurdish tribe of the Barzikānī, other groups of which were led by several of his relatives (Ibn al-At̲h̲īr, viii, 518-9). The death of two uncles (349/960 and 350/961) and the …

, a stronghold of eastern Anatolia situated on a rock (Armenian, pert ) 350 m./1,100 ft. above the plain of K̲h̲anzit [ q.v.], to be identified with the Ḥiṣna Zayt of the Aramaic texts (and already in Ammianus Marcellinus, castellum Ziata , whence, through a confusion, the Arabic Ḥiṣn Ziyād, a term in use till the 16th century). The corrupted form K̲h̲arput is found in colloquial Armenian (whence already in the Byzantine author Cedrenos, ii, 419) and in modern Turkish. The Latin and French authors at the time of t…

, term for a form of administrative grant, often (wrongly) translated by the European word “fief” (German Lehn). The nature of the iḳṭāʿ varied according to time and place, and a translation borrowed from other systems of institutions and conceptions has served only too often to mislead Western historians, and following them, even those of the East. In the article ḍayʿa it was seen how the Muslim state, in its early centuries, had distributed to its notables portions of its territory called ḳaṭāʾiʿ (pl. of ḳaṭīʿa ). These portions were made over, in fact, in…

(a.) “protection”, is used, often together with ḥimāya [ q.v.], to designate certain social practices. Originally, it primarily denoted the protection which Arab tribes extended to merchants, travellers and pilgrims crossing their territories, often in return for payment or as part of an agreement [see īlāf ]. Later, the word’s usage became extended to the “protection” in return for an obligatory payment exacted by various social groups from other groups or from richer individuals (e.g., by the ʿayyārūn and futuwwa [ qq.v.] in the towns). Once the military class had assumed …