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, grand vizier under Maḥmūd I, was born about 1680 at Constantinople. His father was a Janissary. He began his career as a scribe and rose to important posts; in 1739 he played a role in the peace negotiations at Belgrad with Austria. He had been k i aya of the grand vizierate, viz. minister of the interior, when the sulṭān, under influence of his new ḳi̊zlar ag̲h̲asi̊, the so-called Bes̲h̲īr the Younger, dismissed his predecessor Ḥasan Pas̲h̲a and called him to the grand vizierate (August 1746). The twelve months of his period of office were not filled with wa…

Ād̲h̲ar, a Persian poet and biographer of the xviiith century. He was born in Iṣfahān on the 20th Rabīʿ I, 1123 (June 7, 1711) and spent his youth at Ḳūm and later at S̲h̲īrāz, where his father lived while governor of Lāristān and the coast of Fārs under Nādir S̲h̲āh. After the death of his father, he made the pilgrimage to Mecca and travelled in Persia, finally settling in Iṣfahān in the service of Nādir’s successors. He latterly adopted a life of seclusion and put himself under the spiritual direction of Mīr Saiyid ʿAlī Mus̲h̲tāḳ. He died in 1781. Luṭf ʿAlī Beg is best known for the collect…

, sixth ruler of the Ottoman Empire, was born in 806 (1403—1404) and ascended the throne in May 1421, when he arrived in Adrianople some days after his father Muḥammed I’s death; his decease had been kept secret on the advice of the vizier ʿIwaḍ Pas̲h̲a until the new sulṭān’s arrival. As crown prince he had resided at Mag̲h̲nisa, and he had taken part in the suppression of the revolt of Simawna Og̲h̲lu Badr al-Dīn. Immediately after his accession he had to face the pretender known in Turkish his…

, eldest son of Ḏj̲alāl al-Dīn Rūmī and his second successor as head of the Mawlawī order, was born in Lāranda [cf. ḳaramān] in 623 (1226) before Ḏj̲alāl al-Dīn’s family had settled in Ḳonya. He was called after Ḏj̲alāl al-Dīn’s father, Bahāʾ al-Dīn Walad, known as Sulṭān al-ʿUlamāʾ. He was brought up among the Ṣūfīs who surrounded his father and seems to have been particularly intimate with S̲h̲ams al-Dīn Tabrīzī, while his younger brother Čelebi ʿAlāʾ al-Dīn was rather hostile to the latter’s influence. Sulṭān Wala…

(in European sources often Mehemed Ali or Mehemet Ali) was the well-known powerful viceroy of Egypt during the years 1805-1849 (which period comprises the entire reign of Sulṭān Maḥmūd II q. v.); and the founder of the khedivial, later royal dynasty of Egypt. Seen in the light of history his life-work fully entitles him to the epithet of “the Founder of Modern Egypt”. Muḥammad ʿAlī was born in 1769, possibly of Albanian extraction, in the town of Ḳawāla [q. v.] in Macedonia; he was engaged in the tobacco trade until he joined, as biñ bas̲h̲i in a corps of Albanian troops, the Turkish arm…

The present article is intended to deal with the Muḥammadan geographical literature and, as such, is an attempt to fill a gap that was described as a serious omission in the Encyclopaedia by W. Barthold in his introduction to the facsimile edition of Ḥudūd al-ʿĀlam (Leningrad 1930, p. 7). The word d̲j̲ug̲h̲rāfiyā (sometimes vocalised d̲j̲ag̲h̲rāfiyā) itself only came rather late to denote ¶ the science of geography. With the older geographical authors it is mostly used for the well-known geographical work of Ptolemy (cf. Fihrist, p. 268) and for that of Marinus of Tyre (cf. al-Masʿūdī, Tan…

, in the terminology of Turkish mystics, has two meanings: 1. a member of a ṭarīḳa, who accompanies a neophyte of the order during his initiation, as a spiritual interpreter. When a murīd is initiated in the Bektās̲h̲ī ṭarīḳa, he is led by two terd̲j̲umāns into the presence of the S̲h̲aik̲h̲ and eleven other persons representing the eleven imāms. During the ceremony the terd̲j̲umāns guide him and say for him the formulas he has to recite (cf. J. P. Brown, The Darvishes or Oriental ¶ Spiritualism, ed. H. A. Rose, London 1927, p. 206 sqq.). The function of these terd̲j̲umāns is analogous to…

, nineteenth Sulṭān of the Ottoman Empire, was born on December 30, 1641 and was placed on the throne on August 8, 1648, after the deposition, soon followed by the execution, of his father Sulṭān Ibrāhīm. The power in the slate was at that time divided between the court, where the old wālide Kösem [q. v.] and Sulṭān Muḥammad’s mother, the wālide Tark̲h̲ān, held the reins, and the rebellious soldiery of the Janissaries and the Sipāhīs. The lack of stability in the government at this time is shown by the fact, that, until the nomination of the grand vizier …

, S̲h̲ams al-Dīn, Sāmī Bey Frās̲h̲erī, a Turkish author and lexicographer,born at Frās̲h̲er in Albania on June 1, 1850, of an old Muslim Albanian family whose ancestors are said to have been granted this place as a fief by Sulṭān Meḥmed II. He was educated in the Greek lycée at Janina, at the same time receiving instruction from private tutors in Turkish, Persian and Arabic He then came to Constantinople, where he devoted himself to journalism and founded the daily paper Ṣabāḥ about 1875. He began his literary career about the same time and attached himself to the new school…

was the last member of the Zand dynasty in Persia. He was born in 1769, the son of Ḏj̲aʿfar, son of Karīm Ḵh̲an Zand [q. v.]. Ḏj̲aʿfar, who had seized the throne in 1785, had continued the struggle against the Ḳād̲j̲ār Ag̲h̲a Muḥammad, who had forced him to retire to S̲h̲īrāz, where he died on Jan. 23, 1789 from poisoning. During the short period of the reign of his father, Luṭf ʿAlī Ḵh̲ān had been entrusted with the conquest of Lāristān and Kirmān, which he had successfully carried through. ¶ But after the death of Ḏj̲aʿfar he was forced to flee from his own army to Kirmān to seek …

, a little town, capital of a ḳaḍā of the same name in the sand̲j̲aḳ of Ertogrul, belonging to the wilāyet of Ḵh̲udāwendigiār in Asia Minor. It lies to the south of Saḳariya between Lefke and Eski S̲h̲ehir and is a day’s journey from each of these places ( Ḏj̲ihān-numā). Sögüd lies at the mouth of a mountain gorge, very deep and very narrow, and is built in an amphitheatre. The country round the town forms part of the fertile region which forms the transition between the Central Plain of Anatolia on the ¶ south and the lands on either side of the lower course of the Saḳariya to the nort…

(p.), derived from Ḵh̲udāwend, signifying master, lord, prince, and often used in literature to denote God. In the history of the Ottoman Empire this word was: 1) the surname of the Sulṭān Murād I (1360— 1389, q. v.) and 2) the name of the sand̲j̲aḳ and later of the wilāyet of which Brūsa was the capital. The earliest Ottoman chroniclers do not yet give this surname to Murād I (generally called Sulṭān Murād G̲h̲āzī, see e. g. Anonymous Chronicle, ed. Giese). It does not appear until the xvith century (Idrīs Bidlīsī, Saʿd al-Dīn; see von Hammer, G. O. R., i. 107). But the title of Ḵh̲unkiār is found…

(a.), name of a corps of guards, who were especially attached to the person of the Ottoman Sulṭān in the ancient Turkish court. The name is also applied to a member of the guard. Their occupations were similar to those of the Čawus̲h̲ [q. v.], not of military character, nor for court service only, but they were used for more or less important public or political missions. Like the Čawus̲h̲, the Mutafarriḳa were a mounted guard. In later times there were two classes, the gedikli or ziʿāmetli Mutafarriḳa, and the fiefless. Their chief was the Mutafarriḳa Ag̲h̲asi̊. In course of time their nu…

, the twenty-sixth ruler of the Ottoman Empire, was one of the younger sons of Aḥmad III and was born on Ṣafar 14, 1129 = January 28, 1717 ( Sid̲j̲ill-i ʿot̲h̲mānī, i. 80). When he succeeded to the throne, after ʿOt̲h̲rmān III’s death on October 30, 1757, his much more popular brother and heir to the throne, Muḥammad, had recently died, in December 1756. Turkey enjoyed at that time, since the peace of Belgrad of 1739, a period of peace with her neighbours. Since December 1756 the very able Rāg̲h̲ib Pas̲h̲a [q. v.] was grand …

, twenty-ninth sulṭān of the Ottoman Empire, was a son of ʿAbd al-Ḥamīd I and was born on S̲h̲aʿbān 26, 1193 = Sept. 19,1778 (Meḥmed T̲h̲üreiyā, Sid̲j̲ill-i ʿOt̲h̲mānī, i. 81). When the anti-reform party, headed by the ḳāʾim-maḳām Mūsā Pas̲h̲a and the muftī, and supported by the Janissaries and the auxiliary troops of the Yamaḳs had dethroned Selīm III [q. v.] on May 29,1807, Muṣṭafā was proclaimed sulṭān. Immediately afterwards, the unpopular niẓām-i d̲j̲edīd corps was dissolved and Ḳabaḳd̲j̲i Og̲h̲lu, the leader of the Yamaḳs, was made commander of the Bosporus for…

, the word used in western Turkish for village. It is the form in which Turkish has borrowed the Persian gūy (cf. Bittner, Der Einfluss des Arabischen und Persischen auf das Türkische, S.B. Ak. Wien, cxlii., N°. 3, p. 103) or perhaps more correctly kūy (Vullers, Lexicon; Burhān-i Ḳātiʿ; p. 759) meaning originally path, street. In the geographical nomenclature of the Ottoman empire we find many place-names compounded with kiöy, like Bog̲h̲āz Kiöy, Ermeni Kiöy, etc. It seems that these names are not found before the end of the Seld̲j̲ūḳ period. Kiöy in the sense of an open village is opposed to ḳa…

, the patron saint of all wanderers and vagrants such as jugglers, beggars, conjurers, and those who go up and down the country accompanied by animals (goats, asses or apes), who show real or feigned diseases and mutilations, gipsies etc. These people are often classed together as the Banū Sāsān and have a bad reputation, as is evident from the literary references, as almost all classes of swindlers are included under this name. Their arts and tricks are called ʿilm Sāsān. Various traditions seem to exist regarding the father of this trade of begging. According to one story,…

(a.-t.) (Turkish pronounciation: Selamli̊ḳ), 1) Reception-room in Turkish houses of the upper classes, derived from salām, greeting, welcome. In the general plan of this type of house ( ḳonaḳ) there is an ante-room or court behind the main door, at one side of which a stair-case leads up to the selamli̊ḳ, mā-bain [q. v.] and to the corridor ( sofa), which together form the part of the house allotted to the males. On the other side of the court is the entrance to the harem [q.v.]; there also is the swivel-box ( dolab) through which the women communicate with the harem kitchen. Al-though…

, a dynasty of rulers of Egypt and Syria. a. Period from 1250 to 1517. The history of this dynasty is dealt with under the separate rulers; the general questions of art, religion and economics of their time are also dealt with in these articles and notably in Becker’s article egypt [q. v]. and Hartmann’s article damascus [q. v.]. Only a brief survey of the whole period is given here. They were, as their name shows [cf. mamlūk], former slaves from the bodyguards of the sulṭāns and amīrs who had distinguished themselves by ability and been given their freedom by their mast…

, grand vizier under Sulṭān Ibrāhīm, was born about 1600 as son of ʿAbd al-Raḥmān Bey, son of the former grand vizier Aḥmad Pas̲h̲a (under Murād III), and by his mother a grandson of a princess of the imperial house, whence his surname Sulṭān Zāde. After having been ḳapi̊d̲j̲i̊ bas̲h̲i̊ in the palace, he adopted a military career, became already in 1630 ḳubbe wezīri and was appointed in 1638 governor of Egypt. In 1642 he was made ¶ commander of the expedition against Azof [q. v.] which town he rebuilt after it had been burned by the Cossacks before its surrender. On his return he formed with the silaḥ…