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[German version] A collective term for dishes made from the muscle tissue and innards of mammals and birds. In Antiquity, a minor number of meat dishes was made using birds (e.g., blackbird, thrush, duck, goose, chicken, pigeon, quail) and game (especially rabbit, red deer ( Deer), wild boar ( Pig); in the Roman period also rabbit and dormouse). However, most meat dishes were prepared from domestic animals - sheep, pig, cattle and goat. The pig must be particularly emphasized in this group because…

[German version] (Greek ἐδέσματα/ edésmata; Lat. cibi, esca). A classification of dishes in antiquity is unknown to us and can be deduced only from antique  cookery books. They generally organize dishes according to their basic ingredients, thus according to such food groups as fish, meat (quadrupeds), poultry, vegetables, grains and legumes [1]. Ancient sources attest to a variety of dishes; apart from cookery books, comedies (Aristophanes; Plautus) are especially informative sources of information, a…

[German version] (Greek ἡδύσματα/ hēdýsmata; Latin condimenta). Flavouring ingredients of food and drink, mostly from particular parts of indigenous wild and garden plants and exotic ones. A great abundance of spices was known in antiquity, although availability and use differed from period to period to a considerable extent. In the 1st century AD Caelius [II 10] Apicius used in total sixty spices, of which ten were imported ( cf. the lists of spices in Plin. HN 12; 19,101-175; Ath. 2,68a; Apici excerpta a Vinidario 1 André). The most important indigenous spic…

generally a 'representative' (Cic. Verr. 4,81; Liv. 29,1,8 f.; Quint. Decl. 9,9; CIL I 202). [German version] [1] Military-political office (military-political office). In the realm of the Roman political administration (VIII.), vicarii began to appear especially in the High Imperial Period when state responsibilities were increasing and individual civil and military officials were no longer able to single-handedly carry out the duties of their jurisdiction. The emperor assigned men to replace or represent them in certain si…

[German version] (τροφαί / trophaí; Lat. alimenta). Name for nutritious solid and liquid substances which can sometimes be eaten or drunk raw, but which are not normally suitable for consumption without preparation and are therefore further processed into meals in the kitchen. A systematic classification of food is offered by Galen's treatise ‘On the Powers of Food’ ( De alimentorum facultatibus libri III), one of the few ancient dietary specialized writings that are completely extant. Galen classifies food on the principle of its place in natural history…

[German version] (ἄλφιτα/ álphita). Barley groats, flour or bread. The Lat. term polenta describes on the one hand the groats of hulled, roasted barley kernels; on the other, the mash mixed or cooked with these groats together with water, salt and other ingredients (Plin. HN 18,72; Pall. Agric. 7,12). Barley mash, served with accompaniments such as oil or vegetables, was among the most important staples of the diet in Greece until the Hellenistic Period. By contrast, in Italy (with the possible exception of Cisalpine Gaul (Plin. HN 18,85)), emmer mash ( puls) was preferred, the nation…

[German version] (ὄξος/ óxos, acetum). Means of flavouring and conserving, usually obtained by fermenting wine, occasionally also the juice of fruits such as dates and figs. Vinegar existed in various qualities, with that from Alexandria being particularly valued (Plin. HN 14,102). Vinegar, which at the beginning of the 4th cent. AD cost less than ordinary wine (Edict. Diocletiani 3,5), contributed to the sweet-and-sour taste of many dishes; Apicius often used it for sauces for meat and fish dishes …

[German version] was prepared by boiling solid food (such as corn, vegetables, pulses, fish, meat or fruit) in water or other liquids. There were no clear or light soups in ancient cooking, nor was there a term for it. The main reason for this lies in ancient eating habits: although Greeks and Romans did have large spoons ( ligula), they were accustomed to eat with their hands; also as a rule there was no individual cutlery (Table utensils). Thus there were only thick soups in both the simple cooking and the haute cuisine of antiquity: stews, porridges ( pultes; Apicius 5,1), fricassees ( minutal…

[German version] (Town prefect <of Rome later also of Constantinople>; Greek πολίαρχος/ políarchos). According to Roman tradition, by the early Roman period a PU ('town administrator' in [4. 663]) who was authorized first by the king and then by the highest magistrate, supervised the business of the state, mainly the administration of justice in their absence (Liv. 1,59,12; 3,3,6; Tac. Ann. 6,11; Dion. Hal. Ant. Rom. 5,75).The post - should it have ever existed - must have become insignificant with the introduction of collegiality ( collega ) in senior magistr…

[German version] The main daily meal of the Romans. Over the cents. it was largely influenced by Greek table culture: it shifted from midday to evening-time; while it was originally consumed sitting in the atrium or the kitchen, the upper classes at least later took it lying down in special, richly furnished dining rooms (  triclinium ); to the original sequence of main course ( mensa prima) and dessert ( mensa secunda) was added the starter course ( gustatio). The duration and contents of the cena depended on the occasion, and above all on economic circumstances. The ordinary p…

[German version] Overall term for meals prepared from fish, crustaceans and molluscs. The large range of varieties of fish and seafood in the Mediterranean was very different, depending on the season and area of the catch; consumer taste also changed over time. Of the large number of species used for fish dishes (cf. the catalogues in Plin. HN 9,43-104; Ath. 3,30-36; 7,277-330; 8,355-358; Auson. Mos. 75-149) we should emphasize not only  tuna but particularly  crustaceans,  molluscs,  snails and  …

[German version] (ὀπῶραι/ opôrai, Lat. poma). Collective term for edible fruits or seed kernels (hazelnut, almond, pine kernel, etc.), usually from fruit trees. Ancient authors distinguish, according to the time of ripening of the fruit, early summer, summer and autumn fruits (e.g. Gal. de alimentorum facultatibus 2,2; 8). The most important cultivated fruits in the Roman imperial period were  apples, pears, dates,  figs, pomegranates,  plums,  quinces and grapes ( Wine) with many respective subspeci…

[German version] (ὄψον; ópson) referred to any kind of cooked, fried or raw food that was served with staple foods (Nutrition) consisting of grains and pulse, namely vegetables and fruit as well as fish, meat, eggs and milk products (Hom. Od. 3,480; Athen. 7,277a; 14,648f); also opsónion, Lat. obsonium. In classical times, the term acquired the special meaning of “fish” (Athen. 7,276e) because, in the coastal areas of the Mediterranean, that was quite simply the standard accompaniment to staple foods (Fish dishes). Depending on context, opson could mean cheap, often preserved fi…

[German version] (Greek πλακοῦς, plakoûs, Latin placenta), mostly individual sweets, found in many varieties in ancient tradition according to region and period, fashion and purpose (cf. the lists in Ath. 14,643-648). They consisted without exception of fine meal (initially barley, later predominantly wheat), water, milk or shortening and (usually) a raising agent. Other ingredients, such as eggs, fruit, spices, (cream-)cheese, nuts and sweeteners supplied the typical aroma and flavour of a kind of pa…

[German version] (δεῖπνον; deîpnon). In the early Greek period a term applying to every daytime meal. But during the 5th cent. BC in Athens, probably as a consequence of urbanization, the meaning of deîpnon had become restricted to the main meal, which began at sunset. There was a set order to the deîpnon. This comprised the actual meal, with the possibility of several courses, and the dessert, which might lead on to the drinking session ( sympósion); not until the second part of the deîpnon was any amount of wine drunk. As the Greeks saw the deîpnon as the expression of a link with the go…

[German version] (βούτυρον; boútyron, butyrum). Fat mainly from cow's milk, less commonly extracted from sheep's or goat's milk; unlike today it was mostly used in liquid form. Many peoples on the northern and southern edge of the ancient world (especially the Thracians and Scythians but also the Lusitanians, Gauls, Germanic tribes and Arabs) used butter intensively as cooking fat and ointment (Plin. HN 28,133f.). In the Mediterranean Sea area, people preferred to use olive oil instead, the cost of …

[German version] (Greek ἅλμη/ hálmē). Brine used from the earliest Roman period (Fest. 141) to conserve perishable foodstuffs. Although natural brine was also used (Plin. HN 31,83), muria was predominantly mixed from salt and water. To the spicier muria dura (Colum. 12,6) fish, meat, vegetables and fruit were added and eaten when marinated ( salsamenta: Plin. HN 31,83). A milder muria, occasionally mixed with honey (Colum. 12,25,3) was added to wine and milk products to extend their durability (Plin. HN 14,78). Muria was also considered a condiment in the narrower sense (Api…

[German version] Praefectus praetorio Orientis under Constantius II. Life and career are poorly attested. Coming from a curial family from the East, he had a meteoric rise in his career (Lib. Ep. 1510) which reached its peak with the praetorian prefecture. He presumably held this office between the summer of 344 and 28 July AD 346 (Cod. Theod. 11,22,1: first certain evidence for his supposed successor Flavius Philippus) with his headquarters in Antioch [1]. He died shortly before 357 (Lib. Ep. 560) …

[German version] (Greek ἄλευρον/ áleuron, Lat. farina). Fine-grained to powdery product resulting from grinding, crushing or pounding certain grains or seeds. The most important source product in the Greek period was barley (Ath. 3,111e-112a) and in the Roman period it was wheat (Plin. HN 18,74; 85-90); depending on the region, flour was also made from millet (Gal. De alimentorum facultatibus 1,15) and rye (Plin. HN 18,141) and in areas with no grain cultivation or in times of emergency even from starch-containing fruits such as beans or acorns (Plin. HN 16,15; 18,117). Flour was diff…

[German version] Meals, i.e. drink and food taken at particular hours, are at the centre of ancient table culture. The type and sequence of meals and their position in the larger order and that of the overarching rhythm of life are so complex that they cannot be discussed here in their entire structural, spatial and temporal differentiation. In the Greek and Roman world, daily meals were subject to a fixed order that was at first primarily guided by the natural environment, especially sunrise and sunset (cf. the names of the meals: ἄριστον/ áriston, morpheme: ‘early’ and vesperna, morpheme…

[German version] Praefectus praetorio Orientis in AD 383. An orthodox Christian from the West, P. rose above various otherwise unknown officials to the praetorian praefecture of the East (Greg. Naz. Epist. 173). He took up office at the beginning of 383  (Cod. Theod. 9,42,10), but held it only until the end of the year (Cod. Theod. 16,5,12). After returning to the west he was entrusted from 395 to 396 with a legation from the city of Rome's Senate to the emperor (Symmachus Ep. 6,22,3; 6,26,2). Gutsfeld, Andreas (Münster) Bibliography W. Enßlin, s. v. P. (2), RE 22, 890  PLRE 1, 718 (P. 2); c…

[German version] (Greek γάλα/ gála; Latin lac). The milk of various mammals (donkey, camel, cow, sheep, mare, goat) was used in ancient times; the concept was thus not, as today, limited to cow's milk. Cow's milk was rather unpopular in the Mediterranean region, and was consumed in large quantities only in northern regions of the ancient world (Aristot. Hist. Ant. 3,20). The favourite kind of milk among the Greeks and Romans was that of sheep, also the only kind to appear in the Edictum [3] Diocletian…

[German version] In antiquity there were countless types of drinks depending on the time and region and they were drunk undiluted, mixed together or mixed with additives (fat, spices, sweet substances), hot or cold. They can be divided into three groups according to their basic components: 1. Beverages made of water. Water (Plin. HN 31,31-72) was an indispensable nutritional substance (Pind. Ol. 1,1; Vitr. De arch. 8,1,1; Plin. HN 31,31-72) and also an essential component of two important drinks c…

('praetorian prefect'; Greek ἔπαρχος/ éparchos or ὕπαρχος τῆς αὐλῆς/ hýparchos tês aulês). Holder of one of the most important posts in the administration of the Roman empire. [German version] A. Principate Augustus [1] established the post in 2 BC when he placed two men of equestrian rank ( equites Romani ) at the head of his bodyguard, the praetorians ( cohortes praetorianae) (Cass. Dio 55,10). The PP's original task was to command the imperial bodyguard that protected the emperor in his headquarters ( praetorium ). As early as the reign of Tiberius [II …

[German version] Flavius N., praefectus praetorio Galliarum AD 390. N., a novus homo , began his career in the west of the Empire. In 366 he probably went as tribunus et notarius of Valentinian I. to North Africa (Amm. Marc. 26,5,14). He became a close friend of Theodosius, who took N. with him to his part of the Empire after his nomination as emperor and entrusted him with the post of praefectus praetorio of the East from AD 380 to 381. Although criticism of his conduct in office was voiced loudly (Lib. Or. 2,72-73), Theodosius I. held onto N.. He sent him back to …

[German version] (ᾠόν; ōión, ovum). In the ancient kitchen eggs of all domestic birds, such as ducks, pheasants, geese, chicken, peafowl, partridges and pigeons and occasionally even wild fowl, were used. In general usage the meaning of ‘egg’ was narrowed to chicken egg, which was known in Greece no later than the 6th cent. BC and was later much esteemed in the Roman world. The chicken egg was a quite affordable food (Edictum Diocletiani 6,43), which was popularly served as an appetizer at meals (Hor. Sat. 1,3,6f.: ab ovo usque ad mala). It also had a place in haute cuisine:  Apicius …

[German version] Fluid, semi-solid or solid material obtained from vegetable or animal cells, and of great importance to human  Nutrition as a source of energy and vehicle of flavour. In early antiquity  Butter, lard and suet predominated. Use of these animal fats subsequently remained at a high level in antiquity, especially in northern regions; in the Mediterranean region, olive oil eventually gained absolute pride of place. Although relatively expensive (CIL III 2, p. 827 3,1-3; 4,10-11; p. 828…

[German version] (Greek ἁλμαῖα/ halmaîa). Collective term for pickled vegetables, herbs, and fruit. From the Greek period on, people enjoyed preserving plant foodstuffs by pickling them in brine (Colum. 12,4,4), often with the addition of vinegar, spices and other ingredients such as milk and honey (Plin. HN 19,153; Dioscorides 2,174 Wellmann). Columella (10,117; 12,9 f.) has recipes for pickling capers, lettuce, herbs, onions, European cornels, plums and various kinds of apples and pears. In simple cuisine, salgama were eaten with bread or cereal porridge; at more lavish meals, sa…

[German version] Mostly annual plants, parts of which are suitable for eating, either raw or cooked. In the ancient world, there were large numbers of vegetables; there is evidence for Imperial Italy alone of fifty garden species and fifty wild species. Today largely unknown or uncommon, in ancient sources they were divided into three large groups: 1. legumina (primarily the protein-rich pulses, such as beans, peas, chickpeas, lentils, lupins; cf. the lists in Columella 2,7,1-2; Plin. HN 18,117-136); 2. olera (especially the vitamin- and fibre-rich leaf-vegetables, tubers,…

[German version] (Greek ὑδρόμελι/ hydrómeli, Latin [ aqua] mulsa). A beverage usually made of one part honey and two parts water (Columella 12,12; Dioscorides, De materia medica 5,9 Wellmann) that was usually consumed fermented with an alcohol content of 15% but occasionally also unfermented. Apart from beer, mead was the oldest intoxicating drink in the Mediterranean. When wine arrived in the historical period, mead was supplanted first in Greece and then largely in Italy, especially because grapes wer…

[German version] (ἁλία/ halía). Small salt container (Plin. HN 33,153) made of silver, occasionally of clay. It belonged in every Roman household and was used for adding salt during dinner, but had a special function in the domestic cult as well: Up to the Imperial Period, the salinum was used in food offerings between the main course and dessert (Liv. 26,36,6; Stat. Silv. 1,4,130 f.). This cultic significance explains why the salinum was handed down from father to son (Hor. Carm. 2,16,13 f.). Mola salsa Gutsfeld, Andreas (Münster) Bibliography M. Besnier, s. v. S., DS IV/2, 1022  A. Hug, s.…

[German version] (σάκχαρον/ sákcharon, Lat. sacc[ h] aron). Sugar obtained from the pith of sugarcane, a plant not native to the Mediterranean region. The Greeks first came to know of sugarcane and its sweet juice with the Indian campaign of Alexander [II 4] (Str. 15,1,20; Theophr. Hist. pl. 3,15,5). Sugar does not appear to have reached the Mediterranean region in crystalline form before the beginning of the 1st cent. AD, when direct sea trade from Egypt to India got under way (Peripl. maris Erythraei 14 Casson). In any case, the word saccharon entered the sources (Plin. HN 12,32) a…

[German version] Traditional Roman drinking party, a regular accompaniment to a festive   cena , often lasting long into the night. For a long time it was reserved for men, but from the end of the Roman Republic women, too, could partake. The comissatio, a socially highly important form of gathering, reached Rome by the end of the 3rd cent. BC at the latest. The word is derived from the Greek word for revelry, κῶμος ( kômos); its structure and rules corresponded to a large extent to those of the symposium ( Banquet). Apart from the drinking, the entertainment consisted …

[German version] (γλεῦκος/ gleûkos; [ vinum] mustum). As yet unfermented - or just fermenting - juice of pressed fruit such as apples, pears, dates, figs, pomegranates, cornel cherries, quinces and service tree fruit (Plin. HN 13,44-45; 14,102-103. 125; 15,109). The most important type of must was made from grapes (Columella 12,41; Plin. HN 23,29); its Latin name was vinum mustum, from which the English word 'must' derives. Fresh must, whose aperient and invigorating effects were prized by doctors (Celsus, Med. 4,26,5-6; Dioscorides 5,9; Gal. De alimen…

[English version] (griech. ἄλευρον/ áleuron, lat. farina). Feinkörniges bis pulvriges Produkt, das beim Zermahlen, Zerreiben oder Zerstoßen bestimmter Körner oder Samen entsteht. Das wichtigste Ausgangsprodukt war in griech. Zeit Gerste (Athen. 3,111e-112a), in röm. Zeit Weizen (Plin. nat. 18,74; 85-90); je nach Region wurde M. auch aus Hirse (Gal. de alimentorum facultatibus 1,15) und Roggen (Plin. nat. 18,141) und in Gebieten ohne Getreideanbau oder in Notzeiten sogar aus stärkehaltigen Früchten wie Bohnen oder Eicheln erzeugt (Plin. nat. 16,15; 18,117). M. wurde nach de…

[English version] Praefectus praetorio Orientis unter Constantius II. Leben und Laufbahn sind schlecht bezeugt. Aus einer kurialen Familie des Ostens stammend, machte er eine steile Karriere (Lib. epist. 1510), die in der Praetorianerpraefektur gipfelte. Dieses Amt übte er verm. zwischen Sommer 344 und dem 28.7.346 n.Chr. (Cod. Theod. 11,22,1: erster sicherer Beleg für seinen mutmaßlichen Nachfolger Flavius Philippus) mit Sitz in Antiocheia [1] aus. Er starb kurz vor 357 (Lib. epist. 560) und wurde …

[English version] (Flavius Domitius L.). Praefectus praetorio Orientis 340-344, Consul 344 n.Chr. L. wurde wahrscheinlich in Berytos (Phönikien) geb. Nach einer längeren Laufbahn, die 338 vermutlich ein Vikariat einschloß (Cod. Theod. 9,1,7), stieg L. zum praef. praet. Orientis auf (ILS 1234). In diesem Amt ist er sicher vom 11.10.340 (Cod. Theod. 7,9,2 = Cod. Iust. 12,41,1) bis zum 6.7.344 (Cod. Theod. 13,4,3 = Cod. Iust. 10,66,2) bezeugt. L., dessen Amtsführung bei Libanios gelobt wird (Lib. epist. 353), bekleidete im letzten J. …

[English version] (griech. ἁλμαῖα/ halmaía). Sammelbegriff für sauer eingelegte Gemüse, Kräuter, Früchte. Seit griech. Zeit konservierte man pflanzliche Nahrungsmittel gern, indem man sie in eine Salzbrühe einlegte (Colum. 12,4,4), die oft mit Essig, Gewürzen und sonstigen Zutaten wie Milch und Honig angereichert war (Plin. nat. 19,153; Dioskurides 2,174 Wellmann). Rezepte für das Einlegen von Kapern, Salat, Kräutern, Zwiebeln, Kornelkirschen, Pflaumen und verschiedenen Apfel- und Birnenarten finden sich bei Columella (10,117; 12,9 f.). In der einfachen Küche wurden s. z…

[English version] In der Ant. gab es je nach Zeit und Region unzählige Formen von G., die pur, miteinander vermischt, versetzt mit Zutaten (Fett, Gewürzen, Süßstoffen) heiß oder kalt getrunken wurden. Sie lassen sich nach ihren Grundbestandteilen in drei Gruppen einteilen: 1. G. aus Wasser. Wasser (Plin. nat. 31,31-72) war ein unentbehrliches Nahrungsmittel (Pind. O. 1,1; Vitr. 8,1,1; Plin. nat. 31,31-72) und zudem ein notwendiger Bestandteil zweier wichtiger alkoholhaltiger G.: Met und Bier. Met,…

[English version] (τροφαί; lat. alimenta). Bezeichnung für nahrhafte feste und flüssige Stoffe, die bisweilen roh gegessen oder getrunken werden können, sich normalerweise aber nicht ohne Vorbereitung zum Verzehr eignen und deshalb in der Küche zu Speisen weiterverarbeitet werden. Eine systematische Einteilung der N. bietet Galenos' Abhandlung ‘Über die Kräfte der N. ( de alimentorum facultatibus libri III), eine der wenigen ant. diätetischen Spezialschriften, die vollständig erhalten ist. Galen gliedert die N. nach dem Prinzip der naturgesch. Zugehö…

[English version] (σάκχαρον, lat. sacc[ h] aron). Aus dem Mark des Zuckerrohrs, einer im Mittelmeerraum nicht heimischen Pflanze, gewonnener Zucker. Die Griechen lernten das Zuckerrohr und seinen süßen Saft erst mit dem Indienfeldzug des Alexandros [4] kennen (Strab. 15,1,20; Theophr. h. plant. 3,15,5). In kristalliner Form scheint Zucker nicht vor Beginn des 1. Jh. n. Chr., als der direkte Seehandel von Äg. nach Indien in Gang kam, in den Mittelmeerraum gelangt zu sein (peripl. maris Erythraei 14 Casson). Jedenfalls fand in dieser Zeit das Wort s. in der Bed. “Zuckerkorn” Eing…

[English version] (ἄλφιτα). Gerstengraupen, -mehl, -brot. Der lat. Begriff p. bezeichnet zum einen die Grütze von enthülsten und gerösteten Gerstenkörnern, zum anderen den Brei, der aus dieser Grütze mit Wasser, Salz und anderen Zutaten gemischt oder gekocht wurde (Plin. nat. 18,72; Pall. agric. 7,12). Gerstenbrei, der zusammen mit Zukost wie Öl oder Gemüse auf den Tisch kam, gehörte in Griechenland bis in hell. Zeit zu den wichtigsten Gerichten. Dagegen bevorzugte man in It. - vielleicht mit Ausnahme der Gallia Cisalpina (Plin. nat. 18,85) - den Emmerbrei ( puls), das röm. Nation…

[English version] (βούτυρον, butyrum). Überwiegend aus Kuhmilch, seltener aus Schaf- oder Ziegenmilch gewonnenes Fett, das im Unterschied zu heute meist in flüssiger Form verwandt wurde. Viele Völker am nördl. und südl. Rand der ant. Welt (vor allem Thraker und Skythen, aber auch Lusitanier, Gallier, Germanen und Araber) nutzten B. intensiv als Speisefett und Salbe (Plin. nat. 28,133f.). Im Mittelmeerraum bevorzugte man stattdessen das Olivenöl, dessen Preis Anfang des 4.Jh. n.Chr. deutlich über de…

[English version] (griech. ἡδύσματα, hēdýsmata; lat. condimenta). Geschmacksbildende Speise- und Getränkezutaten zumeist aus bestimmten Teilen einheimischer Wild-, Garten- und exotischer Pflanzen. Die Ant. kannte eine große Fülle von G., deren Angebot und Gebrauch aber stark dem Zeitgeschmack unterlag. Caelius [II 10] Apicius verwendet im 1. Jh. n.Chr. insgesamt sechzig G., von denen zehn importiert waren (vgl. die G.-Listen bei Plin. nat. 12; 19,101-175; Athen. 2,68a; Apici excerpta a Vinidario 1 And…

[English version] Aus pflanzlichen oder tierischen Zellen gewonnener, flüssiger, halbfester oder fester Stoff, der für die menschliche Ernährung als Energielieferant und Geschmacksträger von großer Bed. ist. In der Frühzeit der Ant. dominierten Butter, Schmalz und Talg. Der Verbrauch dieser tierischen F. blieb später insbesondere im Norden der ant. Welt hoch; im mediterranen Raum erhielt schließlich das Olivenöl den absoluten Vorrang. Obwohl verhältnismäßig teuer (CIL III 2, p. 827 3,1-3; 4,10-11;…

[English version] M., regelmäßig zu bestimmten Stunden eingenommene Speisen und Getränke, stehen im Zentrum der ant. Eßkultur. Art und Abfolge der M. sowie ihre Stellung innerhalb der M.-Ordnung und des übergeordneten Lebensrhythmus sind so komplex, daß sie hier nicht in ihrer ganzen strukturellen, räumlichen und zeitlichen Differenziertheit erörtert werden können. In der griech. wie der röm. Welt unterlagen die alltäglichen M. einer festen Ordnung, die sich zunächst primär an der natürlichen Umwelt, insbes. am Aufgang und Untergang der Sonne (s. die Namen der M. ἄριστον/ áristo…

[English version] (griech. ἅλμη/ hálmē). Salzlake, die seit frühester röm. Zeit (Fest. 141) zur Konservierung verderblicher Nahrungsmittel genutzt wurde. Obwohl auch natürliche Salzsole Verwendung fand (Plin. nat. 31,83), wurde m. überwiegend aus Salz und Wasser angemischt. In die schärfere m. dura (Colum. 12,6) wurden Fisch, Fleisch, Gemüse und Obst eingelegt, die dann mariniert ( salsamenta: Plin. nat. 31,83) verzehrt wurden. Eine mildere, gelegentlich mit Honig versetzte m. (Colum. 12,25,3) wurde an Wein und Milchprodukte gegeben, um deren Haltbarkeit zu ve…

[English version] (ἁλία/ halía). Kleines Salzgefäß aus Silber (Plin. nat. 33,153), gelegentlich auch aus Ton. Es gehörte in jeden röm. Haushalt und diente zum Nachsalzen der Speisen bei Tisch, hatte aber auch eine bestimmte Funktion für den Hauskult: Bis in die Kaiserzeit vollzog man zw. Hauptgang und Nachspeise mit Hilfe des s. ein Speiseopfer (Liv. 26,36,6; Stat. silv. 1,4,130 f.). Diese kult. Bed. erklärt, warum das s. vom Vater auf den Sohn vererbt wurde (Hor. carm. 2,16,13 f.). Mola salsa Gutsfeld, Andreas (Münster) Bibliography M. Besnier, s. v. S., DS IV/2, 1022  A. Hug, s. v. S.…

[English version] (Stadtpraefekt <von Rom, später auch von Konstantinopolis>; griech. πολίαρχος/ políarchos). Nach der röm. Trad. leitete bereits in der Frühzeit Roms ein vom König, dann vom Höchstmagistrat beauftragter p.u. (“Stadtverweser” bei [4. 663]) in dessen Abwesenheit die Staatsgeschäfte, v. a. die Rechtsprechung (Liv. 1,59,12; 3,3,6; Tac. ann. 6,11; Dion. Hal. ant. 5,75). Das Amt - sollte es jemals bestanden haben - mußte mit der Einführung der Kollegialität ( collega ) der Obermagistratur unbedeutend und mit der Schaffung der Praetur…

[English version] Sammelbegriff für Speisen, die aus Fischen, Krebs- und Weichtieren zubereitet werden. Das sortenreiche Angebot von Fischen und Meeresfrüchten im Mittelmeerraum fiel je nach Fangsaison und -gebiet höchst unterschiedlich aus; auch änderte sich der Verbrauchergeschmack mit der Zeit. Aus der großen Zahl der für F. eingesetzten Arten (vgl. die Kataloge bei Plin. nat. 9,43-104; Athen. 3,30-36; 7,277-330; 8,355-358; Auson. Mos. 75-149) sind neben dem Thunfisch insbesondere Krebse, Musch…