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1. Concept and definitionThe Latin phrase habeas corpus (“you may/should have the body,” meaning “to secure the body”) is understood in a narrow sense as the constitutional protection from illegal imprisonment as a fundamental judicial right. In a broader sense, habeas corpus has evolved into protection from arbitrary prosecution, incarceration, and punishment. Even more comprehensive definitions may be given: habeas corpus thus is occasionally described as the “great writ of liberty” [3] or the “classic fundamental right of human dignity” and as such viewed as…

1. Historical development 1.1. DefinitionLegislation (legislature) is one of the three classical functions of the state in addition to government and jurisdiction. This trio is the basis of the doctrine of the separation of powers (Powers, separation of) and so is of even earlier date. Since the Middle Ages, legislation as the creation of an entire legal order has differed from the application of law in individual cases by means of judgment and specific (administrative) measures enacted by authoriti…

1. Definition The term juridification (alternatively, “judicialisation”; German Verrechtlichung) has been used since the early 20th century to describe the process of the expansion of legal structures to areas of life that had not previously been regulated by law, or the intensification and increasingly detailed nature of existing law; it further refers in a general sense to the growing importance of legal structures. The term Verrechtlichung was coined by Hugo Sinzheimer in 1919 and introduced to scholarly discourse by the dissertation of Otto Kirchheimer in 1928 [22. 354]; [8. 5…

Since antiquity “asylum” (Greek ásylon) has meant a place of refuge where refugees could find protection. Under the influence of medieval legal theory, in the course of the early modern period today’s understanding of the right of asylum developed; it distinguishes between the right of asylum as the sum of legal norms that regulate the field of law and the subjective right of asylum of a  refugee. In the early modern period, the development of an ecclesiastical right of asylum, a secular right, and an international right overlapped. 1. Ecclesiastical right of asylum The ecclesiastical r…

1. Definition and contextsThe concept of justice and what it means is one of the fundamental problems of the philosophy of law and of conceptions of law in every age; this question is also closely tied to the religious or theological notion of the justice of the gods or God (God, concepts of; Theodicy). The number of answers is correspondingly endless, particularly in the early modern period. The question of historical change in the concept of justice seems even more difficult to answer. Only a few…

Freedom of migration is understood to be the right to leave, initially, the territory of a ruler and then - after the formation of states over the course of the early modern period - a national territory for the purpose of establishing permanent residency in a different area. Only after the rise of the modern sovereign state (Sovereignty) with clearly defined national boundaries can one draw a clear distinction between freedom of emigration and freedom of movement. The history of freedom of migr…

1. DefinitionFreedom of movement is the right to stay (temporarily) and reside (permanently) freely and unimpeded by the state anywhere within its territory. Freedom of movement thus represents the inner-state counterpart to freedom of migration. A clear distinction between these two types of freedom developed over the course of the emergence of the modern sovereign state (Sovereignty) with precisely delimited national borders (Boundary). Much of the history of freedom of movement thus coincides …

Both law and ethics formulate cultural behavioral norms. The differentiation or distinction between these areas is thus a fundamental problem of juristic and philosophical thought. Usually, the view is taken that pre-state societies had not yet separated legal, ethical, and religious norms from one another; this did not happen until after the Enlightenment [9. 2 f.].Although the question of the distinction between natural law, ethics, and state law had already been raised in the Middle Ages (by Thomas Aquinas among others), it took on new and, in …

1. BegriffDer Begriff der M. (lat. dignitas hominis, franz. dignité de l'homme, engl. human dignity) gilt als schwer fassbar; es ist von »Problemen und Paradoxien« [7], von Mehrdeutigkeit und »notorischer Unbestimmtheit« [14. 17] die Rede. Über die Aussage hinaus, dass es sich um eine anzuerkennende Eigenschaft des Menschen handelt, hängen seine jeweilige Definition und histor. Entwicklung einerseits vom Menschenbild (Humanität), andererseits vom Begriff der Würde ab. Obwohl eine umfassende Monographie zur Ideen-, Kultur- und Rechtsgeschichte der M. bisher f…

1. DefinitionThe concept of human dignity (Latin, dignitas hominis; French,  dignité de l'homme; German, Menschenwürde) is considered difficult to grasp; it is said to be beset by “problems and paradoxes” [7], by ambiguity, and by “notorious indefiniteness” [14. 17]. Beyond the claim that it is a quality of humankind that warrants recognition, its definition and historical development have depended on prevailing conceptions of what it is to be human (Humanity) and the concept of dignity. Although a comprehensive monograph on the his…

1. Allgemein 1.1. ÜberblickDer (in alle europ. Sprachen übernommene) Begriff stammt aus dem röm. Privatrecht (lat. emancipatio) und bedeutet ursprünglich die Entlassung aus der väterlichen Gewalt (Elternrecht). Er erlebte seit Beginn der Nz. eine erstaunliche Karriere, obwohl sich die genannte familienrechtliche Bedeutung in der Rechtssprache bis weit in das 19. Jh. hinein in Europa erhielt. Während er, abgesehen von der juristischen Bedeutung, zunächst den Beiklang von moralischem Egoismus annahm, wurde er zusehends zum Gegenstand naturrechtlicher und politischer Freih…

1. Grundlagen des katholischen und protestantischen Kirchenrechts Das K. der Nz. wird durch den Verlust der das MA prägenden Glaubenseinheit charakterisiert. Neben das im Corpus Iuris Canonici zusammengefasste Recht der röm.-kath. Kirche trat mit der lutherischen Reformation seit 1517 in einem revolutionären Bruch [2. 503] ein anderes Grundverständnis von der Rolle des Rechts in der Kirche. Die Anerkennung der protest. Glaubenslehre als gleichberechtigt (im Augsburger Religionsfrieden, 1555) und die Erstreckung dieses Status auf die Reformierten (Ca…

1. Foundations of Catholic and Protestant ecclesiastical lawThe ecclesiastical law of the early modern period is characterized by the loss of the religious unity that shaped the Middle Ages. In a revolutionary departure [2. 503] following the Lutheran Reformation in 1517, alongside the law of the Roman Catholic Church, summarized in the  Corpus Iuris Canonici, there now stood a different basic understanding of the role of law in the church. The recognition of Protestant teaching as having equal rights (in the 1555 Peace of Augsburg, 1555) and the…

1. General 1.1. OverviewThe term emancipation, which exists in all European languages, comes from Roman private law (Latin emancipatio), and originally meant release from the patria potestas (Parental rights and obligations). The concept had an extraordinary career from the dawn of the early modern period, though the original family law sense survived in jurisdiction long into the 19th century in Europe. While outside legal usage it initially had an overtone of moral egoism, it increasingly became a subject of reflection…

1. AllgemeinW. (engl. water, franz. eau) ist die chemische Verbindung aus W.- und Sauerstoff (H2O). Es kann auch in der Natur alle drei Aggregatzustände aufweisen; gewöhnlich ist allerdings dann von W. die Rede, wenn es sich um den flüssigen Aggregatzustand handelt. In flüssiger Form ist W. in unserem Sonnensystem bisher nur auf der Erde nachgewiesen, die es zu gut 70 % bedeckt.W. spielt für die menschliche Kultur eine herausragende Rolle; die Verfügbarkeit von Brauch- sowie Trinkwasser (Wasserversorgung) ist existentiell und Ausdruck der Abhängigkeit von der Natur [5. 15–28] (zu…

1. Allgemein 1.1. Definition und frühe BegriffsgeschichteDer Begriff P. stammt aus dem Griechischen (von psych椃, ursprgl. ›Atem‹, ›Seele‹; d. h. ›Seelenkunde‹). Die moderne empirische Wissenschaft der P. begründete ihr weltweit erstes Forschungsinstitut 1879 in Leipzig. In philosophischer Perspektive setzte die europ. P. als Beschäftigung mit den Eigenschaften der Seele jedoch schon mit den Vorsokratikern im 5. Jh. v. Chr. ein.Der kroat. Humanist Marcus Marulus (Marulić) soll 1510/17 einen (verschollenen) Traktat Psichiologia de ratione animae humanae (›Seelenkunde …

1. OverviewWater (German Wasser, French  eau) is a chemical compound of hydrogen and oxygen (H2O). In nature it can appear in all three states; usually, though, when we speak of water we are talking about the liquid state. So far, water in liquid form has been found in our solar system only on Earth, of which it covers a generous 70%. Water plays an outstanding role in human culture; the availability of water for general use and of drinking water (Water supply) is existential and an expression of our dependence on the natural world [5. 15–28] (on mineral water, see 4. below). It is th…

1. Introduction and general history 1.1. Definition and early terminological historyThe word “psychology” comes from the Greek ( psychḗ, originally “breath,” “soul”; i.e. “lore of the soul”). The modern empirical science of psychology established its first research institute at Leipzig in 1879, but from a philosophical perspective, European psychology (as a study of the properties of the soul) began with the work of the Presocratic philosophers in the 5th century BCE.The Croatian Humanist Marcus Marulus (Marulić) is said to have written a treatise (now lost) entitled Psichio…