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Rhine, Confederation of the

(1,899 words)

Author(s): Otto, Martin
“Confederation of the Rhine” (German  Rheinbund; French  Confédération du Rhin) is the name given to two early modern federations of German states created under French influence (States, confederation of).1. First confederation, 1658A first Rhenish confederation (the “Rhenish League” or “Rhenish Alliance”; German  Rheinischer Bund, Rheinische Allianz; French  Ligue du Rhin) was formed on August 14, 1658 at Frankfurt am Main as a response to the election of the Habsburg Leopold I as Holy Roman Emperor (Holy Roman Empire [of the German Nation]).…
Date: 2021-08-02

Law

(10,484 words)

Author(s): Otto, Martin
1. Definition In the Middle Ages, law (Latin ius, French  droit, German  Recht - the German term, like English “right,” is a substantivization of the adjective  reht meaning “right,” “straight,” “correct,” attested since the 8th century) - originally indicating a statute like Latin  lex and French  loi - was a divine disposition [53. 249 f.]. With few exceptions (Municipal law), written legal collections were not viewed as normative. It was rather on account of the influence of the medieval law school at Bologna and the so-called learned …
Date: 2019-10-14

Urteil

(2,390 words)

Author(s): Eckert, Georg | Otto, Martin
1. Philosophie 1.1. AllgemeinU. meint allgemein das Vermögen und den Akt von Unterscheidung und Entscheidung. Einen Ort hatte der aus der Antike und aus der Scholastik überlieferte Begriff (lat. iudicium; vgl. engl. judgement, franz. jugement) in der Nz. in allen Wissenschaften und Künsten, im Recht (s. u. 2.), in der Politik, aber auch in der lebensweltlichen Praxis mit ihren vielerlei Handwerken und Tätigkeiten. Im Besonderen war stets umstritten, ob Vernunft, Verstand oder äußere und innere Sinne die höchste Autorität in der …
Date: 2019-11-19

Judgment

(2,671 words)

Author(s): Eckert, Georg | Otto, Martin
1. Philosophy 1.1. In generalIn general terms, judgment is the capacity and act of determination and decision. Transmitted from antiquity and scholasticism, the term (Latin iudicium; cf. French  jugement, German Urteil) had a place in all arts and sciences of the early modern period, as well as in law (see below, section 2), politics, and the various crafts and trades of everyday life. In particular, it was constantly disputed whether reason, understanding, or external and internal senses should claim the greatest authority …
Date: 2019-10-14

Zensur

(4,365 words)

Author(s): Schneider, Ute | Beutel, Albrecht | Otto, Martin
1. AllgemeinZ. (lat. censura; »Prüfung«, »Beurteilung«) wird heute als »autoritäre Kontrolle menschlicher Äußerungen« verstanden [18. 3] und dient der Kommunikations-Kontrolle, in der Regel zur Stabilisierung eines staatlichen oder kirchl. Systems. Diese Kontrolle wird durch verschiedene praktische Maßnahmen realisiert: durch Präventiv-Z., die die Vorlage von Manuskripten vor Druckbeginn zur Prüfung bei entsprechenden Institutionen erfordert, oder Nach-Z. bzw. Repressiv-Z., die Medien nach ihrer Veröffentlichung indiziert und Druckerzeugnisse ggf. besc…
Date: 2019-11-19

Censorship

(5,070 words)

Author(s): Schneider, Ute | Beutel, Albrecht | Otto, Martin
1. General considerations Censorship (Lat. censura; “examination,” “judgment”) is now understood as the “authoritative monitoring of human utterances” [18. 3] and serves for communication monitoring, generally for the stabilization of a state or church system. This monitoring is realized by means of various different practical measures: by preventive censorship, which requires the submission for examination of manuscripts by relevant institutions before printing begins, or subsequent or repressive censorship, whi…
Date: 2019-10-14