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Before the invention of the steam engine and above all the internal-combustion engine, in most European countries transport and tillage were accomplished with horses or oxen as draft animals. In the Mediterranean world, mules could be employed, less frequently donkeys, sometimes teamed with oxen [5. 21]. There were various ways of harnessing the animal traction. In the case of oxen, the withers yoke had been in use since the early Middle Ages, usually in the form of a double yoke. Under such a  yoke, the oxen did not actually pull but pushed, as the German vernacular verb  schieben sug…

Agricultural credit was a common phenomenon in the rural societies of the modern period [3. 339, 343]; [6. 1340]. Short-term payment deferrals took into account the circumstance that the financial resources of peasants were subject to seasonal fluctuations [4. 285]. The sources refer primarily to long-term agricultural credit. National or territorial regulations governed the general system. In the Holy Roman Empire, interest was generally set at around 5% by the 15th century; this percentage was made mandatory in the Empire in the 16th century [1. 6]; [3. 331] and in France i…

1. Cattle 1.1. IntroductionAnimal husbandry is the economic use of animals and animal products. In this sense, animal husbandry was an integral element of agricultural operations throughout early modern Europe. Cattle were the most important agricultural livestock because of the wide range of uses to which they could be put as draft animals (Harness), sources of milk, meat, and leather, and producers of valuable manure, and scarcely a single farm outside subtropical and tropical zones did not keep them.…

1. Definition Agriculture is the adaptation of plant and animal populations to human needs, entailing not just the alteration of natural conditions, but – and to a far greater extent than in hunting and foraging - the manipulation of the qualities of the stock (see Plant breeding and Animal breeding) (see below, 5.5.). In arable farming, the aim of producing food was from the early Middle Ages no longer primarily achieved by the exploitation of unexhausted soil, but by sophisticated forms of nutri…