(a.), “the places of emission of the letters”, i.e. the points of articulation of the phonemes of Arabic. The singular may be either mak̲h̲rad̲j̲ , noun of place from form I of the verb k̲h̲arad̲j̲a “go forth, be emitted”, or else muk̲h̲rad̲j̲ , passive participle of form IV ak̲h̲rad̲j̲a “emit, send forth” serving as the noun of place. The word ḥurūf (sing, ḥarf ) denotes both the graphic elements of the language ( = letters) and the phonetic ones ( = consonants and vowels) which they represent. The first description which we possess of the points of articulation of the 29 Arabic …

the tenth letter of the Arabic alphabet, transcribed as /r/, and with a numerical value of 200, according to the eastern letter order [see abd̲j̲ad ]. Definition . Vibrant, apical, alveolar and voiced. This trilled consonant is produced by a series of movements of the tongue produced a little behind the gums of the incisors. Sībawayh calls the consonant /r/ “hard” ( s̲h̲adīd ) and “repeated” ( mukarrar ), because of the repetition ( takrīr ) of the tongue’s movement during the sound’s production. For al-K̲h̲alīl. the /r/ is a “pointed” ( d̲h̲awlaḳī ) consonant beca…

, the twenty-fourth letter of the Arabic alphabet, transliterated as m, with the numerical value of 40 according to the eastern order [see abd̲j̲ad ]. Definition: occlusive , bilabial , voiced , nasal (Cantineau, Études , 28; Fleisch, Traité , i, 58). For Sībawayh ( Kitāb , ii, 454), its place of articulation is situated between the lips; it is an “open sound” ( mad̲j̲hūr ), emitted from a base in the mouth and the nasal cavities ( k̲h̲ayās̲h̲īm ), where nasalisation ( g̲h̲unna ) is produced; it is also a “hard sound” ( s̲h̲adīd ), by means of which the sound ( ṣawt ) is tran…

, the fourteenth letter of the Arabic alphabet, transcribed /ṣ/, with the numerical value of 90, according to the eastern order [see abd̲j̲ad ]. In the Mag̲h̲ribī order /ṣ/ takes the place of /s/ (thus 60) and /ḍ/ the place of /ṣ/. For an explanation of this fact, similarly attested in a Thamudic abecedary, see M.C.A. Macdonald (in Bibl .). Definition: an alveolar sibilant, voiceless and velarised ("emphatic") in articulation. As a phoneme / ṣ / is defined by the oppositions / ṣ -s/, / ṣ -ṭ /; it is thus velarised and sibilant. In Ḳurʾānic recitation, or elevated style of recitation in g…

, the 25th letter of the Arabic alphabet, transcribed / n/, with the numerical value 50, according to the oriental order [see abd̲j̲ad ]. Nūn is also a name of the 68th sūra [see Ḳurʾān , sūra ]. 1. In Arabic ¶ Definition: an occlusive, dental, voiced nasal (Cantineau, Études , 38-40; Fleisch, Traité , i, 58, 84-5). Sībawayh distinguishes two kinds nūn: (a) the one whose point of articulation is the tip of the tongue and the region a little above the incisors; this is a clear ( mad̲j̲hūr ) and hard ( s̲h̲adīd ) “letter”, but it is accompanied by a resonance ( g̲h̲unna ) of the nose ( anf ). (b) the light ( k̲h…